Manipulation and detection of single electrons for future information processing

The ultimate goal of future information processing might be the realization of a circuit in which one bit is represented by a single electron. Such a challenging circuit would comprise elemental devices whose tasks are to drag, transfer, and detect single electrons. In achieving these tasks, the Coulomb blockade, which occurs in tiny conducting materials, plays an important role. This paper describes the current status of research on such single-charge-control devices from the viewpoints of circuit applications.

[1]  A. Korotkov.  Wireless single‐electron logic biased by alternating electric field , 1995 .

[2]  Smith,et al.  Conductance oscillations periodic in the density of one-dimensional electron gases. , 1990, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[3]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Turnstile Operation Using a Silicon Dual-Gate Single-Electron Transistor , 2003 .

[4]  C. Lent,et al.  Maxwell's demon and quantum-dot cellular automata , 2003 .

[5]  Hiroshi Inokawa,et al.  Binary adders of multigate single-electron transistors: specific design using pass-transistor logic , 2002 .

[6]  Yasuo Wada,et al.  Estimate of the ultimate performance of the single‐electron transistor , 1994 .

[7]  P. D. Tougaw,et al.  A device architecture for computing with quantum dots , 1997, Proc. IEEE.

[8]  Nobuyuki Yoshikawa,et al.  Single Electron Transfer Logic Gate Family , 1999 .

[9]  D. M. Kim,et al.  Photonic high-frequency capacitance-voltage characterization of interface states in metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitors , 2002 .

[10]  J. Colinge.  Silicon-on-Insulator Technology: Materials to VLSI , 1991 .

[11]  Enhanced quantized current driven by surface acoustic waves , 2000, cond-mat/0006487.

[12]  Anatoli Korkin,et al.  Nano and Giga Challenges in Microelectronics , 2003 .

[13]  John R. Tucker,et al.  Complementary digital logic based on the ``Coulomb blockade'' , 1992 .

[14]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Fabrication technique for Si single-electron transistor operating at room temperature , 1995 .

[15]  R. Schoelkopf,et al.  Radio-frequency single-electron transistor: Toward the shot-noise limit , 2001 .

[16]  Michel Devoret,et al.  Single-Electron Pump Based on Charging Effects , 1992 .

[17]  Gary H. Bernstein,et al.  Experimental demonstration of a binary wire for quantum-dot cellular automata , 1999 .

[18]  M. Kastner,et al.  The single-electron transistor , 1992 .

[19]  H. Edwards,et al.  Heating in electron turnstiles and pumps , 1995 .

[20]  Stephen Y. Chou,et al.  Single hole quantum dot transistors in silicon , 1995 .

[21]  T. Eiles,et al.  Noise in the Coulomb blockade electrometer , 1992 .

[22]  Dieter P. Kern,et al.  Single-electron charging in doped silicon double dots , 1999 .

[23]  C. Lent,et al.  Realization of a Functional Cell for Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata , 1997 .

[24]  Korotkov.  Intrinsic noise of the single-electron transistor. , 1994, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[25]  Hongkun Park,et al.  Kondo resonance in a single-molecule transistor , 2002, Nature.

[26]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Manipulation of elementary charge in a silicon charge-coupled device , 2001, Nature.

[27]  Yasunobu Nakamura,et al.  Room-temperature Al single-electron transistor made by electron-beam lithography , 2000 .

[28]  C. Lent,et al.  Power gain and dissipation in quantum-dot cellular automata , 2002 .

[29]  Michel H. Devoret,et al.  Amplifying quantum signals with the single-electron transistor , 2000, Nature.

[30]  Hiroshi Inokawa,et al.  Multilevel memory using single-electron turnstile , 2004 .

[32]  David A. Ritchie,et al.  Measurements of noise caused by switching of impurity states and of suppression of shot noise in surface-acoustic-wave-based single-electron pumps , 2002 .

[33]  D. Esteve.  Transferring Electrons One By One , 1992 .

[34]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Detection of single charges and their generation-recombination dynamics in Si nanowires at room temperature , 2002 .

[35]  Wolf,et al.  Background charge noise in metallic single-electron tunneling devices. , 1996, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[36]  Wolfgang Porod,et al.  Quantum cellular automata , 1994 .

[37]  Robert M. Westervelt,et al.  Cryogenic field‐effect transistor with single electronic charge sensitivity , 1994 .

[38]  Niu,et al.  Towards a quantum pump of electric charges. , 1990, Physical review letters.

[39]  R. A. Webb,et al.  Mesoscopic phenomena in solids , 1991 .

[40]  Nazarov,et al.  Virtual electron diffusion during quantum tunneling of the electric charge. , 1990, Physical review letters.

[41]  Junichi Motohisa,et al.  Single electron transport and current quantization in a novel quantum dot structure , 1994 .

[42]  Delsing,et al.  Single-electron charging effects in one-dimensional arrays of ultrasmall tunnel junctions. , 1989, Physical review letters.

[43]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Si Single-Electron Transistors with High Voltage Gain , 2001 .

[44]  Paul L. McEuen,et al.  Single-Electron Transport in Ropes of Carbon Nanotubes , 1997, Science.

[45]  Gary H. Bernstein,et al.  Correlated electron transport in coupled metal double dots , 1998 .

[46]  Dolan,et al.  Observation of single-electron charging effects in small tunnel junctions. , 1987, Physical review letters.

[47]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Size dependence of the characteristics of Si single-electron transistors on SIMOX substrates , 1996 .

[48]  Tunneling time and offset charging in small tunnel junctions , 1990 .

[49]  Gary H. Bernstein,et al.  Experimental demonstration of a leadless quantum-dot cellular automata cell , 2000 .

[50]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  OBSERVATION OF SINGLE ELECTRON-HOLE RECOMBINATION AND PHOTON-PUMPED CURRENT IN AN ASYMMETRIC SI SINGLE-ELECTRON TRANSISTOR , 1997 .

[51]  Moon–Young Jeong,et al.  Performance of Single-Electron Transistor Logic Composed of Multi-gate Single-Electron Transistors , 1997 .

[52]  R. Schoelkopf,et al.  The radio-frequency single-electron transistor (RF-SET): A fast and ultrasensitive electrometer , 1998, Science.

[53]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Si complementary single-electron inverter with voltage gain , 2000 .

[54]  A. Odintsov.  Single electron transport in a two‐dimensional electron gas system with modulated barriers: A possible dc current standard , 1991 .

[55]  H. Inokawa,et al.  A compact analytical model for asymmetric single-electron tunneling transistors , 2003 .

[56]  S. Amakawa,et al.  Estimation of Cotunneling in Single-Electron Logic and Its Suppression , 1996 .

[57]  Jonas I. Goldsmith,et al.  Coulomb blockade and the Kondo effect in single-atom transistors , 2002, Nature.

[58]  F. Jülicher,et al.  Modeling molecular motors , 1997 .

[59]  Dieter P. Kern,et al.  Simultaneous operation of two adjacent double dots in silicon , 2001 .

[60]  G. Tóth,et al.  Experimental demonstration of a latch in clocked quantum-dot cellular automata , 2001 .

[61]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  A multiple-valued logic and memory with combined single-electron and metal-oxide-semiconductor transistors , 2003 .

[62]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Single‐electron transistor logic , 1996 .

[63]  Zhenan Bao,et al.  Conductance of small molecular junctions. , 2002, Physical review letters.

[64]  James D. Meindl,et al.  Special issue on limits of semiconductor technology , 2001, Proc. IEEE.

[65]  Michel Devoret,et al.  Single electron pump fabricated with ultrasmall normal tunnel junctions , 1991 .

[66]  H. Dai,et al.  Individual single-wall carbon nanotubes as quantum wires , 1997, Nature.

[67]  Haroon Ahmed,et al.  Coulomb blockade in a silicon tunnel junction device , 1994 .

[68]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Threshold Voltage of Si Single-Electron Transistor , 2003 .

[69]  Gary H. Bernstein,et al.  External charge state detection of a double-dot system , 1997 .

[70]  Mechanism of single-charge detection using electron-hole system in Si-wire transistors , 2002 .

[71]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Error mechanisms and rates in tunable-barrier single-electron turnstiles and charge-coupled devices , 2004 .

[72]  Johnson,et al.  Quantized current in a quantum-dot turnstile using oscillating tunnel barriers. , 1991, Physical review letters.

[73]  K. Likharev.  Single-electron transistors: Electrostatic analogs of the DC SQUIDS , 1987 .

[74]  Takashi Yamada,et al.  Multiple-Valued Inverter Using a Single-Electron-Tunneling Circuit (Special Issue on Integrated Electronics and New System Paradigms) , 1999 .

[75]  K. Matsuzawa,et al.  Analytical Single-Electron Transistor(SET)Model for Design and Analysis of Realistic SET Circuits , 2000 .

[76]  G. Tóth,et al.  QUASIADIABATIC SWITCHING FOR METAL-ISLAND QUANTUM-DOT CELLULAR AUTOMATA , 1999, cond-mat/0004457.

[77]  David A. Ritchie,et al.  SINGLE-ELECTRON TRANSPORT IN A ONE-DIMENSIONAL CHANNEL BY HIGH-FREQUENCY SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVES , 1997 .

[78]  N. Stone,et al.  Logic circuit elements using single-electron tunnelling transistors , 1999 .

[79]  Y. Suda,et al.  Bidirectional Signal Transmission Circuit Using Single Electron Tunneling Junctions , 1999 .

[80]  Minoru Fujishima,et al.  Simple and Stable Single-Electron Logic Utilizing Tunnel-Junction Load , 1995 .

[81]  Kastner,et al.  Single-electron charging and periodic conductance resonances in GaAs nanostructures. , 1990, Physical review letters.

[82]  Ken Uchida,et al.  A new design scheme for logic circuits with single electron transistors , 1999 .

[83]  Craig S. Lent,et al.  Bypassing the Transistor Paradigm , 2000, Science.

[84]  M. Ratner,et al.  Current‐voltage characteristics of molecular wires: Eigenvalue staircase, Coulomb blockade, and rectification , 1996 .

[85]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Excellent charge offset stability in a Si-based single-electron tunneling transistor , 2001 .

[86]  Michel Devoret,et al.  Frequency-locked turnstile device for single electrons , 1990 .

[87]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Single Electronics: A Correlated Transfer of Single Electrons and Cooper Pairs in Systems of Small Tunnel Junctions , 1991 .

[88]  Toshiro Hiramoto,et al.  Quantum mechanical effects in the silicon quantum dot in a single-electron transistor , 1997 .

[89]  J. Martinis,et al.  A capacitance standard based on counting electrons , 1999, Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements. Conference Digest. CPEM 2000 (Cat. No.00CH37031).

[90]  M. Ancona.  Single-phase single-electron digital circuits , 1997 .

[91]  Caro,et al.  Coulomb-blockade oscillations in the conductance of a silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect-transistor point contact. , 1991, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[92]  J. Martinis,et al.  Noise-induced leakage and counting errors in the electron pump , 2000 .

[93]  Kazuo Yano,et al.  Room-temperature single-electron memory , 1994 .

[94]  Jensen,et al.  Metrological accuracy of the electron pump. , 1994, Physical review letters.

[95]  Non-equilibrium effects and self-heating in single-electron Coulomb blockade devices , 1995, cond-mat/9510063.

[96]  Yoshihito Amemiya,et al.  Single-electron logic device based on the binary decision diagram , 1997 .

[97]  G. Tóth,et al.  Power gain in a quantum-dot cellular automata latch , 2002 .

[98]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Fabrication method for IC-oriented Si single-electron transistors , 2000 .

[99]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Observation and Circuit Application of Negative Differential Conductance in Silicon Single-Electron Transistors , 2002 .

[100]  V. Bubanja.  Influence of the Electromagnetic Environment on the Accuracy of the Single Electron Pump , 2002 .

[101]  Yoshihito Amemiya,et al.  Single-Electron Logic Systems Based on the Binary Decision Diagram , 1998 .

[102]  Masumi Saitoh,et al.  Large Electron Addition Energy above 250 meV in a Silicon Quantum Dot in a Single-Electron Transistor , 2001 .

[103]  M. Pepper,et al.  High-frequency single-electron transport and the quantized acoustoelectric effect , 2000 .

[104]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Accuracy of the single‐electron pump using an optimized step‐like rf drive waveform , 1996 .

[105]  Smith,et al.  Conductance oscillations periodic in the density of a one-dimensional electron gas. , 1989, Physical review letters.

[107]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Time-resolved measurement of single-electron tunneling in a Si single-electron transistor with satellite Si islands , 1995 .

[108]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  A numerical study of the accuracy of single‐electron current standards , 1996 .

[109]  Self-aligned double-gate single-electron transistor derived from 0.12-μm-scale electron-beam lithography , 2001 .

[110]  M. Ancona.  Design of computationally useful single-electron digital circuits , 1996 .

[111]  P. D. Tougaw,et al.  Bistable saturation in coupled quantum dots for quantum cellular automata , 1993 .

[112]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Electron pump by a combined single-electron/field-effect- transistor structure , 2003 .

[113]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Double-island single-electron devices. A useful unit device for single-electron logic LSI's , 1999 .

[114]  C. Lent,et al.  Demonstration of a six-dot quantum cellular automata system , 1998 .

[115]  M Pepper,et al.  High-frequency single-electron transport in a quasi-one-dimensional GaAs channel induced by surface acoustic waves , 1996, Journal of physics. Condensed matter : an Institute of Physics journal.

[116]  A. A. Odintsov,et al.  Macroscopic quantum tunneling of the electric charge in small tunnel junctions , 1989 .

[117]  J. E. Mooij,et al.  Fabrication of multilayer single‐electron tunneling devices , 1995 .

[118]  A Si Memory Device Composed of a One-Dimensional Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor Switch and a Single-Electron-Transistor Detector , 1999 .

[119]  J. Martinis,et al.  Rare Errors in a Well-Characterized Electron Pump: Comparison of Experiment and Theory , 1998 .

[120]  Kazuhiko Matsumoto,et al.  Single-Electron Transistor with Ultra-High Coulomb Energy of 5000 K Using Position Controlled Grown Carbon Nanotube as Channel , 2003 .

[121]  T. Janssen,et al.  Accuracy of quantized single-electron current in a one-dimensional channel , 2000 .

[122]  Kris Kempa,et al.  Spontaneous polarization of electrons in quantum dashes , 1991 .

[123]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Possible performance of capacitively coupled single‐electron transistors in digital circuits , 1995 .

[124]  Koji Ishibashi,et al.  Fabrication of a single-electron inverter in multiwall carbon nanotubes , 2003 .

[125]  T. Hiramoto,et al.  On the origin of tunneling barriers in silicon single electron and single hole transistors , 1999 .

[126]  Jean-Luc Brédas,et al.  Single-electron transistor of a single organic molecule with access to several redox states , 2003, Nature.

[127]  Nahum,et al.  Effect of environmental noise on the accuracy of Coulomb-blockade devices. , 1993, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[128]  Byung-Gook Park,et al.  Room Temperature Coulomb Oscillation of a Single Electron Switch with an Electrically Formed Quantum Dot and Its Modeling , 2000 .

[129]  Riichiro Saito,et al.  Electronic structure of chiral graphene tubules , 1992 .

[130]  H. Matsuoka,et al.  Coulomb blockade in the inversion layer of a Si metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor with a dual‐gate structure , 1994 .

[131]  John M. Martinis,et al.  Accuracy of electron counting using a 7‐junction electron pump , 1996 .

[132]  Michelle Y. Simmons,et al.  Single-electron acoustic charge transport by two counterpropagating surface acoustic wave beams , 1999 .

[133]  Minoru Fujishima,et al.  Proposal of a Schottky-Barrier SET Aiming at a Future Integrated Device , 1997 .

[134]  Kazuo Nakazato,et al.  Hybrid Circuit Simulator Including a Model for Single Electron Tunneling Devices , 1999 .

[135]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Single-electron devices and their applications , 1999, Proc. IEEE.

[136]  J. Niemeyer,et al.  Coulomb blockade and cotunneling in single electron circuits with on-chip resistors: Towards the implementation of the R pump , 2000 .

[137]  H. Nejoh.  Incremental charging of a molecule at room temperature using the scanning tunnelling microscope , 1991, Nature.

[138]  Toshiro Hiramoto,et al.  Coulomb blockade oscillations at room temperature in a Si quantum wire metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor fabricated by anisotropic etching on a silicon‐on‐insulator substrate , 1996 .

[139]  K. Masu,et al.  Reliability of Single Electron Transistor Circuits Based on Eb/N0-Bit Error Rate Characteristics , 1999 .

[140]  Alexander B. Zorin,et al.  Operation of a three-junction single-electron pump with on-chip resistors , 2001 .

[141]  R. Schoelkopf,et al.  Noise performance of the radio-frequency single-electron transistor , 2003 .

[142]  Michel Devoret,et al.  Single Charge Tunneling , 1992 .

[143]  D. Thouless,et al.  Quantization of particle transport , 1983 .

[144]  Y. Jeong,et al.  Design Considerations for Low-Power Single-Electron Transistor Logic Circuits , 2001 .

[145]  Hiroshi Inokawa,et al.  A Merged Single-Electron Transistor and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Transistor Logic for Interface and Multiple-Valued Functions , 2002 .

[146]  Gary H. Bernstein,et al.  Experimental demonstration of clocked single-electron switching in quantum-dot cellular automata , 2000 .

[147]  Akira Sato,et al.  Accuracy of a Harmonically Operated Single Electron Pump , 2001 .

[148]  Effect of polarization screening length on electron-pump cotunneling errors. , 1995, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[149]  Designing of silicon effective quantum dots by using the oxidation-induced strain: a theoretical approach , 2000 .

[150]  Jensen,et al.  Accuracy of the electron pump. , 1992, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[151]  Mark W. Keller,et al.  Electrical metrology with single electrons , 2003 .

[152]  Snider,et al.  Digital logic gate using quantum-Dot cellular automata , 1999, Science.

[153]  Yoshihito Amemiya,et al.  Single-Electron Majority Logic Circuits , 1997 .

[154]  John E. Cunningham,et al.  Single-electron acoustic charge transport on shallow-etched channels in a perpendicular magnetic field , 2000 .

[155]  Akira Toriumi,et al.  Power Consumption of Hybrid Circuits of Single-Electron Transistors and Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors , 2001 .

[156]  Yoshihito Amemiya,et al.  Boltzmann machine neuron circuit using single-electron tunneling , 1997 .

[157]  G. J. Dolan,et al.  Offset masks for lift‐off photoprocessing , 1977 .

[158]  M. Devoret,et al.  Direct observation of macroscopic charge quantization , 1991 .

[159]  Multilevel memory using an electrically formed single-electron box , 2004 .

[160]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Mechanism of Potential Profile Formation in Silicon Single-Electron Transistors Fabricated Using Pattern-Dependent Oxidation , 2001 .

[161]  A. A. Odintsov,et al.  Ultimate accuracy of single‐electron dc current standards , 1993 .

[162]  A. N. Korotkov,et al.  SINGLE-ELECTRON-PARAMETRON-BASED LOGIC DEVICES , 1998 .

[163]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Coulomb blockade of single-electron tunneling, and coherent oscillations in small tunnel junctions , 1986 .

[164]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Multigate single-electron transistors and their application to an exclusive-OR gate , 2000 .

[165]  Konstantin K. Likharev,et al.  Electronics Below 10 nm , 2003 .

[166]  Stephen Y. Chou,et al.  A Silicon Single-Electron Transistor Memory Operating at Room Temperature , 1997, Science.

[167]  Y. Wang,et al.  Observation of quantum effects and Coulomb blockade in silicon quantum-dot transistors at temperatures over 100 K , 1995 .

[168]  P. D. Tougaw,et al.  Logical devices implemented using quantum cellular automata , 1994 .

[169]  Delsing,et al.  Time-correlated single-electron tunneling in one-dimensional arrays of ultrasmall tunnel junctions. , 1989, Physical review letters.

[170]  Craig S. Lent,et al.  Bistable saturation due to single electron charging in rings of tunnel junctions , 1994 .

[171]  Yasuo Takahashi,et al.  Current quantization due to single-electron transfer in Si-wire charge-coupled devices , 2004 .

[172]  M. Devoret,et al.  Controlled transfer of single charge carriers , 1991 .