The relationship between life stress and smartphone addiction on taiwanese university student: A mediation model of learning self-Efficacy and social self-Efficacy

Abstract Although numerous studies have examined factors that influence smartphone addiction, few have analyzed the potential protective factors inherent in individuals that may benefit future intervention programs for smartphone addiction. Thus, this study established a model for analyzing the mediating effect that learning self-efficacy and social self-efficacy have on the relationship between university students’ perceived life stress and smartphone addiction. Sampling 387 Taiwanese university students, we distributed scales surveying for university students’ life stress, learning self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, and smartphone addiction. Data retrieved from the scales were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The SEM path analysis yielded the following results: (1) Academic stress had negative predictive power for social and learning self-efficacies, and interpersonal relationship stress had negative predictive power for social self-efficacy. (2) Social self-efficacy had positive predictive power for smartphone addiction. (3) Family and emotional stresses had positive predictive power for smartphone addiction. Generally, the results of this study could be used to significantly predict the life stresses that influenced university students’ smartphone addiction. In addition, social self-efficacy can be considered a cognitive mechanism that mediates the relationships between academic stress and smartphone addiction and between interpersonal relationship stress and smartphone addiction. Finally, we discussed the research results and offered relevant suggestions for schools, university students, and future studies.

[1]  L. Harlow,et al.  Effects of estimation methods, number of indicators per factor, and improper solutions on structural equation modeling fit indices , 1995 .

[2]  Zhongyi Hu,et al.  Exploring Gender Differences on General and Specific Computer Self-Efficacy in Mobile Learning Adoption , 2013, ArXiv.

[3]  Pajares,et al.  Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Mathematical Problem-Solving of Gifted Students , 1996, Contemporary educational psychology.

[4]  A. Bandura,et al.  Adolescent Development from an Agentic Perspective , 2003 .

[5]  P. Bentler,et al.  Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives , 1999 .

[6]  Michael J. Renner,et al.  A Life Stress Instrument for Classroom Use , 1998 .

[7]  Nina Knoll,et al.  Dispositional self-efficacy as a personal resource factor in coping after surgery , 2005 .

[8]  Man Kit Chang,et al.  Factor structure for Young's Internet Addiction Test: A confirmatory study , 2008, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[9]  M. Toda,et al.  Mobile phone dependence and health-related lifestyle of university students , 2006 .

[10]  R. Schwarzer,et al.  The General Self-Efficacy Scale: Multicultural Validation Studies , 2005, The Journal of psychology.

[11]  B. Dohrenwend,et al.  Adversity, stress, and psychopathology , 1998 .

[12]  M. Toda,et al.  Mobile phone dependence of female students and perceived parental rearing attitudes , 2008 .

[13]  Chin-Chung Tsai,et al.  Internet Addiction of Adolescents in Taiwan: An Interview Study , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[14]  C. Mazure,et al.  Self-efficacy as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms , 2000, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[15]  Kimberly Young,et al.  Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder , 1998, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[16]  Frank M. Pajares,et al.  Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents , 2006 .

[17]  J Hill,et al.  Individual predictors of traumatic reactions in firefighters. , 2000, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[18]  Shao-I Chiu,et al.  A model of the relationship between psychological characteristics, mobile phone addiction and use of mobile phones by Taiwanese university female students , 2012, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[19]  C. Jenaro,et al.  Problematic internet and cell-phone use: Psychological, behavioral, and health correlates , 2007 .

[20]  Kanwal Nalwa,et al.  Internet Addiction in Students: A Cause of Concern , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[21]  Jennifer B. Unger,et al.  Stressful life events among adolescents in Wuhan, China: Associations with smoking, alcohol use, and depressive symptoms , 2001 .

[22]  H. E. Rawson,et al.  Stress, anxiety, depression, and physical illness in college students. , 1994, The Journal of genetic psychology.

[23]  P. Muris,et al.  Protective and vulnerability factors of depression in normal adolescents. , 2001, Behaviour research and therapy.

[24]  Frank Pajares,et al.  SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS, MOTIVATION, AND ACHIEVEMENT IN WRITING: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE , 2003 .

[25]  A. Bandura.  Human agency in social cognitive theory. , 1989, The American psychologist.

[26]  D R Baldwin,et al.  Stress and illness in adolescence: issues of race and gender. , 1997, Adolescence.

[27]  Rajita Sinha,et al.  Chronic Stress, Drug Use, and Vulnerability to Addiction , 2008, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[28]  Tracey A. Revenson,et al.  The Role of Perceived Self-Efficacy, Perceived Control, and Causal Attributions in Adaptation to Rheumnatoid Arthritis: Distinguishing Mediator from Moderator Effects , 1992 .

[29]  Eric W. Lindsey,et al.  Health Status and Peer Relationships in Early Adolescence: The Role of Peer Contact, Self-esteem, and Social Anxiety , 2009 .

[30]  Dawn Iacobucci.  Mediation Analysis Basics , 2008 .

[31]  陳政友.  Pressure faced and coped by senior students of National Taiwan Normal University and related factors , 2004 .

[32]  Andrew Baum,et al.  Stress, Health, and Illness , 2011 .

[33]  I. Lyoo,et al.  Attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and Internet addiction , 2004, Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[34]  Nancy E. Betz,et al.  Evaluation of an intervention to increase realistic self-efficacy and interests in college women. , 2000 .

[35]  C. Spivey,et al.  Resilience in Undergraduate Social Work Students: Social Support and Adjustment to Academic Stress , 2010 .

[36]  R. Kay,et al.  Gender Differences in the use of Laptops in Higher Education: A Formative Analysis , 2011 .

[37]  Joseph E. Williamson,et al.  Emergency workers' cognitive appraisal and coping with traumatic events , 1988 .

[38]  Ronald C. Kessler,et al.  Strategies for measuring stress in studies of psychiatric and physical disorders. , 1995 .

[39]  J. S. Tanaka.  "How Big Is Big Enough?": Sample Size and Goodness of Fit in Structural Equation Models with Latent Variables. , 1987 .

[40]  Siu-Kau Cheung,et al.  Effects of self-efficacy and social support on the mental health conditions of mutual-aid organization members , 2000 .

[41]  Ralf Schwarzer,et al.  Optimistic Self-Beliefs as a Resource Factor in Coping with Stress , 1995 .

[42]  Frank Pajares,et al.  Self-Efficacy Beliefs and General Mental Ability in Mathematical Problem-Solving , 1995 .

[43]  Frank Pajares,et al.  Role of Self-Efficacy and General Mental Ability in Mathematical Problem-Solving: A Path Analysis. , 1995 .

[44]  Chien Chou.  Internet Heavy Use and Addiction among Taiwanese College Students: An Online Interview Study , 2001, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[45]  A. Bandura.  Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[46]  A. Bandura.  Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory , 1985 .

[47]  Yukun Bao,et al.  Can Online MBA Programmes Allow Professional Working Mothers to Balance Work, Family, and Career Progression? A Case Study in China , 2014, ArXiv.

[48]  D. Schunk,et al.  Risk Taking: Theoretical, Empirical, and Educational Considerations , 1991 .

[49]  Stephen Cox,et al.  Keeping in constant touch: The predictors of young Australians' mobile phone involvement , 2011, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[50]  P. Kendall.  Treating anxiety disorders in children: results of a randomized clinical trial. , 1994, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[51]  Jin Jing,et al.  Factors Associated with Internet Addiction among Adolescents , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[52]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using Multivariate Statistics , 1983 .

[53]  James G. Phillips,et al.  Personality and self reported mobile phone use , 2008, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[54]  Frank M. Pajares,et al.  Mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics performances: The need for specificity of assessment. , 1995 .

[55]  P. Pintrich.  Multiple Goals, Multiple Pathways: The Role of Goal Orientation in Learning and Achievement. , 2000 .

[56]  Bill Sault,et al.  Social support, self‐efficacy and trauma in new recruits and experienced firefighters , 2003 .

[57]  B. Zimmerman,et al.  ADOLESCENTS ’ DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONAL AGENCY The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Self-Regulatory Skill , 2006 .

[58]  Nancy E. Betz,et al.  Development and Validation of a Scale of Perceived Social Self-Efficacy , 2000 .

[59]  R. Bagozzi,et al.  On the evaluation of structural equation models , 1988 .

[60]  N. Betz,et al.  An examination of efficacy and esteem pathways to depression in young adulthood. , 2002 .

[61]  M. Linden,et al.  Does impulsivity relate to perceived dependence on and actual use of the mobile phone , 2007 .

[62]  Elizabeth A. Linnenbrink,et al.  Motivation as an Enabler for Academic Success , 2002 .

[63]  Chien Chou,et al.  Internet addiction, usage, gratification, and pleasure experience: the Taiwan college students' case , 2000, Comput. Educ..

[64]  Jennifer Connolly,et al.  Social self-efficacy in adolescence: relations with self-concept, social adjustment, and mental health , 1989 .

[65]  James G. Phillips,et al.  Psychological Predictors of Problem Mobile Phone Use , 2005, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[66]  D Meyers,et al.  A stressful life. , 1982, British medical journal.

[67]  Andrés Chamarro,et al.  Problematic Internet and mobile phone use and clinical symptoms in college students: The role of emotional intelligence , 2009, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[68]  Nancy E. Betz,et al.  Path Models of the Relationships of Instrumentality and Expressiveness to Social Self-Efficacy, Shyness, and Depressive Symptoms , 2004 .

[69]  David E. Clarke.  Vulnerability to stress as a function of age, sex, locus of control, hardiness and Type A personality , 1995 .

[70]  Kunio Shiomi,et al.  Social Self-Efficacy and Interpersonal Stress in Adolescence , 2003 .

[71]  N. Betz,et al.  Path Models of the Relationships of Instrumentality and Expressiveness, Social Self–Efficacy, and Self–Esteem to Depressive Symptoms in College Students , 2006 .

[72]  A. Bandura.  Exercise of Human Agency Through Collective Efficacy , 2000 .

[73]  Evangelia P. Galanaki,et al.  Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction: Its Relation with Children's Self-Efficacy for Peer Interaction. , 1999 .

[74]  Katherine M. White,et al.  Personality and Self-Esteem as Predictors of Young People's Technology Use , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[75]  Kimberly Young,et al.  Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Internet Addicts: Treatment Outcomes and Implications , 2007, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[76]  Jaehak Yu,et al.  Characteristics of Excessive Cellular Phone Use in Korean Adolescents , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[77]  Albert Bandura,et al.  Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: the role of perceived self-efficacy. , 2004, Behaviour research and therapy.

[78]  Evelyn Millings Monk.  Student mental health: the case studies , 2004 .

[79]  Ahmet Akin,et al.  Social self-efficacy, academic locus of control, and internet addiction , 2010, Comput. Educ..

[80]  M. Toda,et al.  Relationships of personality and lifestyle with mobile phone dependence among female nursing students , 2009 .

[81]  P. Lewinsohn,et al.  Cognitive-behavioral treatment for depressed adolescents* , 1990 .

[82]  Frank Pajares,et al.  Mathematics Self-Efficacy and Mathematical Problem Solving: Implications of Using Different Forms of Assessment , 1997 .

[83]  S. Whiteside,et al.  The Five Factor Model and impulsivity: using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity , 2001 .

[84]  Norman S. Endler,et al.  Coping, efficacy, and perceived control in acute vs chronic illnesses , 2001 .

[85]  Elvira Cicognani,et al.  Self-efficacy moderates the relationship between stress appraisal and quality of life among rescue workers , 2010, Anxiety, stress, and coping.

[86]  Kenneth I. Pakenham,et al.  External health locus of control and general self-efficacy: Moderators of emotional distress among university students , 2004 .

[87]  M. Browne,et al.  Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit , 1992 .

[88]  M. Linden,et al.  The Role of Impulsivity in Actual and Problematic Use of the Mobile Phone , 2008 .

[89]  K. Scherer.  College Life On-Line: Healthy and Unhealthy Internet Use. , 1997 .

[90]  Shulamith Kreitler,et al.  Stress, self‐efficacy and quality of life in cancer patients , 2007, Psycho-oncology.

[91]  A. Bandura,et al.  Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy beliefs on academic functioning. , 1996, Child development.

[92]  A. Ryan,et al.  Early Adolescents' Perceptions of the Classroom Social Environment, Motivational Beliefs, and Engagement. , 2007 .

[93]  P. Muris.  Relationships between self-efficacy and symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression in a normal adolescent sample , 2002 .

[94]  Hamid Allahverdipour,et al.  Perceived stress, self-efficacy and its relations to psychological well-being status in Iranian male high school students , 2008 .

[95]  Dieter Wagner,et al.  Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms from pretraumatic risk factors: a 2-year prospective follow-up study in firefighters. , 2005, The American journal of psychiatry.

[96]  C. L. Mandle,et al.  Self efficacy as a mediator of the relationship between pain intensity, disability and depression in chronic pain patients , 1999, Pain.

[97]  R. P. McDonald,et al.  Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis : The effect of sample size , 1988 .