Emotion regulation and psychopathology: the role of gender.

This review addresses three questions regarding the relationships among gender, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: (a) are there gender differences in emotion regulation strategies, (b) are emotion regulation strategies similarly related to psychopathology in men and women, and (c) do gender differences in emotion regulation strategies account for gender differences in psychopathology? Women report using most emotion regulation strategies more than men do, and emotion regulation strategies are similarly related to psychopathology in women and men. More rumination in women compared to men partially accounts for greater depression and anxiety in women compared to men, while a greater tendency to use alcohol to cope partially accounts for more alcohol misuse in men compared to women. The literature on emotion regulation is likely missing vital information on how men regulate their emotions. I discuss lessons learned and questions raised about the relationships between gender differences in emotion regulation and gender differences in psychopathology.

[1]  M. Spada,et al.  Rumination as a predictor of drinking behaviour in alcohol abusers: a prospective study. , 2010, Addiction.

[2]  C. Gohm.  Mood regulation and emotional intelligence: individual differences. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[3]  H. Koot,et al.  The normative development of child and adolescent problem behavior. , 2003, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[4]  Erik Schouten,et al.  The influence of emotion-focused rumination and distraction on depressive symptoms in non-clinical youth: a meta-analytic review. , 2009, Clinical psychology review.

[5]  Eric Stice,et al.  Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. , 2007, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[6]  R. Moos,et al.  The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events , 1981, Journal of Behavioral Medicine.

[7]  Judith A. Hall.  Gender Effects in Decoding Nonverbal Cues , 1978 .

[8]  P. Davis.  Gender differences in autobiographical memory for childhood emotional experiences. , 1999, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[9]  Joseph E LeDoux.  Emotion Circuits in the Brain , 2000 .

[10]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Rumination, Depression, and Alcohol Use: Tests of Gender Differences , 2002, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[11]  K. Sher,et al.  Heavy drinking from the freshman year into early young adulthood: the roles of stress, tension-reduction drinking motives, gender and personality. , 2001, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[12]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  When are adaptive strategies most predictive of psychopathology? , 2012, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[13]  David H. Barlow,et al.  Behavioral treatment of panic disorder , 1989 .

[14]  L. Koenig,et al.  Response styles and negative affect among adolescents , 1996, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[15]  William C. Pedersen,et al.  Chewing on it can chew you up: effects of rumination on triggered displaced aggression. , 2005, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[16]  Robert M. Holaway,et al.  Delineating components of emotion and its dysregulation in anxiety and mood psychopathology. , 2007, Behavior therapy.

[17]  S. Shields.  Women, men, and the dilemma of emotion. , 1987 .

[18]  E. Watkins.  Constructive and Unconstructive Repetitive Thought , 2008, Psychological bulletin.

[19]  D. Newlin,et al.  Alcohol challenge with sons of alcoholics: a critical review and analysis. , 1990, Psychological bulletin.

[20]  P. Jose,et al.  When does the Gender Difference in Rumination Begin? Gender and Age Differences in the Use of Rumination by Adolescents , 2008 .

[21]  J. Bargh,et al.  The nonconscious regulation of emotion , 2007 .

[22]  Richard A. Fabes,et al.  Gender and Age Stereotypes of Emotionality , 1991 .

[23]  P. Engler,et al.  Predicting eating disorder group membership: an examination and extension of the sociocultural model. , 2006, Behavior therapy.

[24]  O. Mowrer.  On the dual nature of learning—a re-interpretation of "conditioning" and "problem-solving." , 1947 .

[25]  J. Trimble,et al.  American Indian and Alaska Native mental health: diverse perspectives on enduring disparities. , 2012, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[26]  J. Gross,et al.  Emotion Regulation and Mental Health , 1995 .

[27]  S. Armeli,et al.  Positive and negative daily events, perceived stress, and alcohol use: a diary study. , 2000, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[28]  S. McMain,et al.  An Information-Processing Analysis of Mindfulness: Implications for Relapse Prevention in the Treatment of Substance Abuse , 2006 .

[29]  Steven R. Asher,et al.  Friendship and Friendship Quality in Middle Childhood: Links with Peer Group Acceptance and Feelings of Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction. , 1993 .

[30]  Amanda J. Rose.  Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. , 2002, Child development.

[31]  Crystal L. Park,et al.  Drinking to cope among college students: prevalence, problems and coping processes. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[32]  Amanda J. Rose,et al.  Prospective associations of co-rumination with friendship and emotional adjustment: considering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-rumination. , 2007, Developmental psychology.

[33]  O. John,et al.  Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[34]  J. Gross.  The Emerging Field of Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review , 1998 .

[35]  A. Manstead,et al.  The relation between gender and emotion in different cultures , 2000 .

[36]  D. Buhrmester,et al.  Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. , 1985 .

[37]  K. Driscoll,et al.  Sex Differences and Response Styles: Subtypes of Rumination and Associations with Depressive Symptoms , 2009, Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53.

[38]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms , 2011 .

[39]  P. Lewinsohn,et al.  Psychosocial adjustment in young adulthood of women who experienced an eating disorder during adolescence. , 2003, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[40]  K. Sher,et al.  Alcohol and Affect Regulation. , 2007 .

[41]  C. McLean,et al.  Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety. , 2009, Clinical psychology review.

[42]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Possible Contributors to the Gender Differences in Alcohol Use and Problems , 2006, The Journal of general psychology.

[43]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis , 2003, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[44]  S. Koole,et al.  Sublimal affect regulation: The moderating role of action versus state orientation , 2005 .

[45]  S. Dawe,et al.  Alcohol abuse and dysfunctional eating in adolescent girls: the influence of individual differences in sensitivity to reward and punishment. , 2001, The International journal of eating disorders.

[46]  E. Diener,et al.  Sex differences in the recall of affective experiences. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[47]  Amanda J. Rose.  Structure, Content, and Socioemotional Correlates of Girls' and Boys' Friendships: Recent Advances and Future Directions , 2007 .

[48]  M. Kozak,et al.  Emotional processing of fear: exposure to corrective information. , 1986, Psychological bulletin.

[49]  Nadia Crittenden,et al.  Can men do better if they try harder: Sex and motivational effects on emotional awareness , 2005 .

[50]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Regulating responses to anger: effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[51]  Cynthia L. Turk,et al.  Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation model of generalized anxiety disorder. , 2005, Behaviour research and therapy.

[52]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Mediators of the Gender Difference in Rumination , 2001 .

[53]  David H. Barlow,et al.  Incorporating Emotion Regulation into Conceptualizations and Treatments of Anxiety and Mood Disorders. , 2007 .

[54]  M. Spada,et al.  Rumination in problem drinkers , 2008 .

[55]  E. McClure.  A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents. , 2000, Psychological bulletin.

[56]  T. Joiner,et al.  Anger rumination across forms of aggression , 2009 .

[57]  A. Ehlers,et al.  Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. , 1998, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[58]  C. Zahn-Waxler,et al.  Disorders of childhood and adolescence: gender and psychopathology. , 2008, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[59]  Yanni G. Malliaris,et al.  Rumination-focused cognitive behaviour therapy for residual depression: a case series. , 2007, Behaviour research and therapy.

[60]  H. White,et al.  Gender differences in alcohol use during adolescence. , 1997 .

[61]  Tracy L. Spinrad,et al.  Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. , 2010, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[62]  Ross A. Thompson,et al.  Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations , 2007 .

[63]  J. Read,et al.  Do parents still matter? Parent and peer influences on alcohol involvement among recent high school graduates. , 2004, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[64]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  A Heuristic for Developing Transdiagnostic Models of Psychopathology , 2011, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[65]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Gender Differences in Depression , 2001 .

[66]  Niall Bolger,et al.  Effects of social support visibility on adjustment to stress: experimental evidence. , 2007, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[67]  T. Palfai,et al.  Emotional attention, clarity, and repair : Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale , 1995 .

[68]  J. Williams,et al.  Rumination, experiential avoidance, and dysfunctional thinking in eating disorders , 2010, Behaviour research and therapy.

[69]  Peter Muris,et al.  The etiology of specific phobias: A review , 1996 .

[70]  T. Moffitt,et al.  Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies of juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior. , 1997 .

[71]  R. Aguilar,et al.  Alcohol use as a behavioural sign of disinhibition: evidence from J.A. Gray's model of personality. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[72]  J. Williams,et al.  Mindfulness and psychological process. , 2010, Emotion.

[73]  Lisa D. Butler,et al.  Gender differences in responses to depressed mood in a college sample , 1994 .

[74]  Qing Zhou,et al.  Relations among positive parenting, children's effortful control, and externalizing problems: a three-wave longitudinal study. , 2005, Child development.

[75]  D. Derryberry,et al.  Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament , 1997, Development and Psychopathology.

[76]  G. Elder,et al.  Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. , 2001, Developmental psychology.

[77]  E. Diener,et al.  Gender differences in negative affect and well-being: the case for emotional intensity. , 1991, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[78]  James J. Gross,et al.  Emotion Generation and Emotion Regulation: One or Two Depends on Your Point of View , 2011, Emotion review : journal of the International Society for Research on Emotion.

[79]  M. Sanders.  Development, evaluation, and multinational dissemination of the triple P-Positive Parenting Program. , 2012, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[80]  John A Bargh,et al.  The unconscious regulation of emotion: nonconscious reappraisal goals modulate emotional reactivity. , 2009, Emotion.

[81]  Lisa Feldman Barrett,et al.  She's Emotional. He's Having a Bad Day: Attributional Explanations for Emotion Stereotypes Are Women Really More Emotional? , 2022 .

[82]  J. Simpson,et al.  Getting in Under the Radar , 2010, Psychological science.

[83]  J. Kristeller.  4 – MINDFULNESS-BASED APPROACHES TO EATING DISORDERS , 2006 .

[84]  Tracy L. Spinrad,et al.  Emotion-related regulation: sharpening the definition. , 2004, Child development.

[85]  M. Bates,et al.  Gender differences in acute alcohol effects on self-regulation of arousal in response to emotional and alcohol-related picture cues. , 2009, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[86]  J. Joormann.  Cognitive Inhibition and Emotion Regulation in Depression , 2010 .

[87]  A. Kring,et al.  Emotion regulation and psychopathology : a transdiagnostic approach to etiology and treatment , 2010 .

[88]  Eric Luis Uhlmann,et al.  Can an Angry Woman Get Ahead? , 2008, Psychological science.

[89]  T. Wills,et al.  Peer and adolescent substance use among 6th-9th graders: latent growth analyses of influence versus selection mechanisms. , 1999, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[90]  L. Brody,et al.  On understanding gender differences in the expression of emotion: Gender roles, socialization, and language. , 1993 .

[91]  Anne C. Petersen,et al.  Gender-specific pathways to intimacy in early adolescence , 1990, Journal of youth and adolescence.

[92]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema.  Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. , 1991, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[93]  R. Kessler,et al.  Prevalence, comorbidity, and service utilization for mood disorders in the United States at the beginning of the twenty-first century. , 2007, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[94]  D. Espelage,et al.  Depressive Symptoms, Coping Strategies, and Disordered Eating Among College Women , 2006 .

[95]  J. Holm-Denoma,et al.  Perceived Physical Appearance Mediates the Rumination and Bulimic Symptom Link in Adolescent Girls , 2010, Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53.

[96]  R. Moos,et al.  The 8-year course of alcohol abuse: gender differences in social context and coping. , 2005, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[97]  M. Linehan,et al.  Dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder. , 2007, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[98]  J. Gray,et al.  Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus : A Practical Guide for Improving Communication and Getting What You Want in Your Relationships , 1992 .

[99]  Andrew Mathews,et al.  Cognitive bias modification approaches to anxiety. , 2012, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[100]  H. Goldsmith,et al.  Gender differences in temperament: a meta-analysis. , 2006, Psychological bulletin.

[101]  Nancy Eisenberg,et al.  Effortful Control and Its Socioemotional Consequences. , 2007 .

[102]  C. Durbin,et al.  Advances, Problems, and Challenges in the Study of Emotion Regulation: A Commentary , 2010 .

[103]  V. Helgeson,et al.  Distinctions of unmitigated communion from communion: self-neglect and overinvolvement with others. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[104]  K. Witkiewitz,et al.  Update on harm-reduction policy and intervention research. , 2010, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[105]  Daniel A. Newman,et al.  Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model. , 2010, The Journal of applied psychology.

[106]  N. Jacobson,et al.  Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression: Returning to Contextual Roots , 2006 .

[107]  M. Schuckit,et al.  Drug and alcohol abuse : a clinical guide to diagnosis and treatment , 1979 .

[108]  Frank J. Farach,et al.  The contributory role of worry in emotion generation and dysregulation in generalized anxiety disorder. , 2007, Behaviour research and therapy.

[109]  Nancy C.A. Roeske,et al.  Toward a New Psychology of Women , 1977 .

[110]  Susanne Schweizer,et al.  Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. , 2010, Clinical psychology review.

[111]  Michael D. Edge,et al.  The behavioral activation system and mania. , 2012, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[112]  Ross A. Thompson,et al.  Emotion regulation: a theme in search of definition. , 1994, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.

[113]  Michael D. Robinson,et al.  The Gender Heuristic and the Database: Factors Affecting the Perception of Gender-Related Differences in the Experience and Display of Emotions , 1998 .

[114]  E. Watkins,et al.  Rumination-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy for residual depression: phase II randomised controlled trial. , 2011, The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science.

[115]  Tracy L. Spinrad,et al.  The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. , 2001, Child development.

[116]  A. Ehlers,et al.  Posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents: 3-year follow-up of a prospective longitudinal study. , 2002, Behaviour research and therapy.

[117]  M. Lenzenweger.  Epidemiology of personality disorders. , 2008, The Psychiatric clinics of North America.

[118]  K. Deaux,et al.  Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior. , 1987 .

[119]  S. E. Taylor,et al.  Effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[120]  V. Helgeson,et al.  Relation of agency and communion to well-being: Evidence and potential explanations. , 1994 .

[121]  S. Hymel,et al.  Gender‐Differentiated Experience in the Peer Culture: Links to Intimacy in Preadolescence , 2000 .

[122]  C. Hammen,et al.  Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: a transactional perspective. , 1999, Child development.

[123]  C. B. Frankel,et al.  On the nature of emotion regulation. , 2004, Child development.

[124]  R. Baumeister,et al.  Binge eating as escape from self-awareness. , 1991, Psychological bulletin.

[125]  Judith A. Hall,et al.  Gender and emotion in context. , 2008 .

[126]  B. Burkhart,et al.  Sex differences in motivations for and effects of drinking among college students. , 1984, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[127]  D. Abrams,et al.  Effects of alcohol on social anxiety in women: cognitive versus physiological processes. , 1979, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[128]  B. Bushman.  Does Venting Anger Feed or Extinguish the Flame? Catharsis, Rumination, Distraction, Anger, and Aggressive Responding , 2002 .

[129]  J. Nigg,et al.  Current issues in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. , 2012, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[130]  M. L. Cooper,et al.  Gender, stress, coping, and alcohol use. , 1997 .

[131]  A. Kring,et al.  Sex differences in emotion: expression, experience, and physiology. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[132]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  Rethinking Rumination , 2008, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[133]  J. Forgas,et al.  On Managing Moods: Evidence for the Role of Homeostatic Cognitive Strategies in Affect Regulation , 2002 .

[134]  M. L. Cooper,et al.  Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: a motivational model of alcohol use. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[135]  James J. Gross,et al.  Handbook of emotion regulation , 2007 .

[136]  K. Dobson,et al.  Cognitive therapy of depression: pretreatment patient predictors of outcome. , 2002, Clinical psychology review.

[137]  S. Baron-Cohen.  The extreme male brain theory of autism , 2002, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[138]  J. Gabrieli,et al.  Gender Differences in Emotion Regulation: An fMRI Study of Cognitive Reappraisal , 2008, Group processes & intergroup relations : GPIR.

[139]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. , 1991, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[140]  B. Grant,et al.  Evidence for a closing gender gap in alcohol use, abuse, and dependence in the United States population. , 2008, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[141]  V. Helgeson,et al.  Sex Differences in Coping Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review and an Examination of Relative Coping , 2002 .

[142]  John E. Roberts,et al.  Rumination in Interpersonal Relationships: Does Co-rumination Explain Gender Differences in Emotional Distress and Relationship Satisfaction Among College Students? , 2008, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[143]  Cynthia L. Turk,et al.  Distinct and Overlapping Features of Rumination and Worry: The Relationship of Cognitive Production to Negative Affective States , 2002, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[144]  J. Graber,et al.  Coping with perceived peer stress: gender-specific and common pathways to symptoms of psychopathology. , 2010, Developmental psychology.

[145]  A. Ehlers,et al.  PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. , 1999, The British journal of clinical psychology.

[146]  G. Clore,et al.  Four latent traits of emotional experience and their involvement in well-being, coping, and attributional style , 2002 .

[147]  G. Clore,et al.  Individual Differences in Emotional Experience: Mapping Available Scales to Processes , 2000 .

[148]  D. Wegner,et al.  Thought suppression. , 2000, Annual review of psychology.

[149]  M L Cooper,et al.  Coping, expectancies, and alcohol abuse: a test of social learning formulations. , 1988, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[150]  L. Abramson,et al.  Domain Specificity of Gender Differences in Rumination , 2002, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[151]  T. Kashdan,et al.  Materialism and diminished well-being: Experiential avoidance as a mediating mechanism , 2007 .

[152]  Kenneth J Sher,et al.  The development of alcohol use disorders. , 2005, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[153]  L. Abramson,et al.  The ABCs of depression: integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. , 2008, Psychological review.

[154]  Lisa Feldman Barrett,et al.  Are Women the More Emotional Sex? Evidence From Emotional Experiences in Social Context , 1998 .

[155]  M. McCarthy,et al.  The thin ideal, depression and eating disorders in women. , 1990, Behaviour research and therapy.

[156]  Kristalyn Salters-Pedneault,et al.  Efficacy of an acceptance-based behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: evaluation in a randomized controlled trial. , 2008, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[157]  P. A. Norman,et al.  A prospective study of outcome in bulimia nervosa and the long-term effects of three psychological treatments. , 1995, Archives of general psychiatry.

[158]  C. Carver,et al.  Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. , 1989, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[159]  G. Affleck,et al.  Mood and alcohol consumption: an experience sampling test of the self-medication hypothesis. , 2000, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[160]  S. Folkman,et al.  [An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample]. , 1980, Kango kenkyu. The Japanese journal of nursing research.

[161]  M. Moretti,et al.  Rumination on Anger and Sadness in Adolescence: Fueling of Fury and Deepening of Despair , 2007, Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53.

[162]  S. Hinshaw,et al.  Emotion Regulation and Externalizing Disorders in Children and Adolescents. , 2007 .

[163]  Katie A McLaughlin,et al.  Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety. , 2011, Behaviour research and therapy.

[164]  R. Baumeister,et al.  Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: if you feel bad, do it! , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[165]  S. Hayes,et al.  Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change , 1999 .

[166]  A. Feingold,et al.  Gender differences in personality: a meta-analysis. , 1994, Psychological bulletin.

[167]  Frank H Wilhelm,et al.  How to Bite Your Tongue Without Blowing Your Top: Implicit Evaluation of Emotion Regulation Predicts Affective Responding to Anger Provocation , 2006, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[168]  D. Sukhodolsky,et al.  Development and validation of the anger rumination scale , 2001 .

[169]  J. Abela,et al.  Rumination in Response to Stress as a Common Vulnerability Factor to Depression and Substance Misuse in Adolescence , 2008, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[170]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema.  It Is Not What You Have; It Is What You Do With It: Support for Addis's Gendered Responding Framework , 2008 .

[171]  A. Caspi,et al.  Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females , 2001, Development and Psychopathology.

[172]  Simon Baron-Cohen,et al.  The Essential Difference: The Truth About the Male and Female Brain , 2003 .

[173]  James J. Gross,et al.  When Emotion Goes Wrong: Realizing the Promise of Affective Science , 2003 .

[174]  Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick,et al.  Mood Adjustment to Social Situations Through Mass Media Use: How Men Ruminate and Women Dissipate Angry Moods , 2006 .

[175]  D. Jack.  Silencing the self , 1991 .

[176]  Tracy A. Dennis,et al.  Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: methodological challenges and directions for child development research. , 2004, Child development.

[177]  C. Grillon,et al.  Impaired discriminative fear-conditioning resulting from elevated fear responding to learned safety cues among individuals with panic disorder. , 2009, Behaviour research and therapy.

[178]  E. Verona.  Moderating effects of rumination and gender on context‐specific aggression , 2005 .

[179]  A. Beck,et al.  Screening depressed patients in family practice. A rapid technic. , 1972, Postgraduate medicine.

[180]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Specificity of cognitive emotion regulation strategies: a transdiagnostic examination. , 2010, Behaviour research and therapy.

[181]  M. L. Cooper,et al.  Gender roles as mediators of sex differences in adolescent alcohol use and abuse. , 1992, Journal of health and social behavior.

[182]  Michael E. Levin,et al.  Open, aware, and active: contextual approaches as an emerging trend in the behavioral and cognitive therapies. , 2011, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[183]  Mahzarin R. Banaji,et al.  Toward a reconsideration of the gender–emotion relationship. , 1992 .

[184]  P. Brantley,et al.  Acute alcohol intoxication, negative affect, and autonomic arousal in women and men. , 1982, Addictive behaviors.

[185]  Dana L. Haggard,et al.  Co-Rumination in the Workplace: Adjustment Trade-offs for Men and Women Who Engage in Excessive Discussions of Workplace Problems , 2011 .

[186]  Nilly Mor,et al.  Self-focused attention and negative affect: a meta-analysis. , 2002, Psychological bulletin.

[187]  V. Blankenship,et al.  Ruminative Thoughts and Their Relation to Depression and Anxiety1 , 2002 .

[188]  Michelle G. Craske,et al.  Worry and Rumination: Repetitive Thought as a Concomitant and Predictor of Negative Mood , 2000, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[189]  J. Miller,et al.  Toward a new psychology of women , 1976 .

[190]  F. Petermann,et al.  Age and Gender Effects on Coping in Children and Adolescents , 2005 .

[191]  A. Hussong,et al.  Specifying the relations between affect and heavy alcohol use among young adults. , 2001, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[192]  G. Kochanska,et al.  Effortful control in early childhood: continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. , 2000, Developmental psychology.

[193]  C. Gilligan.  In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA (Harvard University Press) 1982. , 1982 .

[194]  Sheri L. Johnson,et al.  Serotonergic function, two-mode models of self-regulation, and vulnerability to depression: what depression has in common with impulsive aggression. , 2008, Psychological bulletin.

[195]  M. L. Cooper,et al.  Stress and alcohol use: moderating effects of gender, coping, and alcohol expectancies. , 1992, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[196]  J. Polivy,et al.  Causes of eating disorders. , 2002, Annual review of psychology.

[197]  J. Hyde,et al.  The influence of child gender role and maternal feedback to child stress on the emergence of the gender difference in depressive rumination in adolescence. , 2010, Developmental psychology.

[198]  Joseph E LeDoux.  Emotion circuits in the brain. , 2009, Annual review of neuroscience.

[199]  Patricia C. Broderick,et al.  Coping Style and Depression in Early Adolescence: Relationships to Gender, Gender Role, and Implicit Beliefs , 2002 .

[200]  K. Liebsch,et al.  Rumination, distraction and mindful self-focus: effects on mood, dysfunctional attitudes and cortisol stress response , 2008, Psychological Medicine.

[201]  A. Ehlers,et al.  Dissociation and post-traumatic stress disorder: two prospective studies of road traffic accident survivors. , 2002, The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science.

[202]  Michael R. Frone,et al.  Stressful life events, gender, and substance use: An application of tobit regression. , 1994 .

[203]  L. Alden,et al.  Cognitive processes in social anxiety: the effects of self-focus, rumination and anticipatory processing. , 2000, Behaviour research and therapy.

[204]  Karin Coifman,et al.  The Importance of Being Flexible , 2004, Psychological science.

[205]  S. Hayes,et al.  Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. , 1996 .

[206]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. , 2000, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[207]  T. Palfai,et al.  Behavioral Activation System (BAS) sensitivity and reactivity to alcohol cues among hazardous drinkers. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[208]  E. Watkins.  Depressive Rumination and Co-Morbidity: Evidence for Brooding as a Transdiagnostic Process , 2009, Journal of rational-emotive and cognitive-behavior therapy : RET.

[209]  Lisa Feldman Barrett,et al.  Sex Differences in Emotional Awareness , 2000 .