Atomic force microscopy probing of cell elasticity.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has recently provided the great progress in the study of micro- and nanostructures including living cells and cell organelles. Modern AFM techniques allow solving a number of problems of cell biomechanics due to simultaneous evaluation of the local mechanical properties and the topography of the living cells at a high spatial resolution and force sensitivity. Particularly, force spectroscopy is used for mapping mechanical properties of a single cell that provides information on cellular structures including cytoskeleton structure. This entry is aimed to review the recent AFM applications for the study of dynamics and mechanical properties of intact cells associated with different cell events such as locomotion, differentiation and aging, physiological activation and electromotility, as well as cell pathology. Local mechanical characteristics of different cell types including muscle cells, endothelial and epithelial cells, neurons and glial cells, fibroblasts and osteoblasts, blood cells and sensory cells are analyzed in this paper.

[1]  A. Yagi,et al.  Transverse elasticity of myofibrils of rabbit skeletal muscle studied by atomic force microscopy. , 1999, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[2]  M. Radmacher,et al.  In vitro activation of human platelets triggered and probed by atomic force microscopy. , 1993, Experimental cell research.

[3]  K. Kendall,et al.  Surface energy and the contact of elastic solids , 1971, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[4]  H. Wada,et al.  Local mechanical properties of guinea pig outer hair cells measured by atomic force microscopy 1 1 This study was presented at the 25th Midwinter Research Meeting of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology in January 2002. , 2002, Hearing Research.

[5]  Wojciech Strojny,et al.  Stiffness of normal and pathological erythrocytes studied by means of atomic force microscopy. , 2006, Journal of biochemical and biophysical methods.

[6]  H. Miyamoto,et al.  Imaging Plasmodium falciparum-infected ghost and parasite by atomic force microscopy. , 1997, Journal of structural biology.

[7]  R. Lal,et al.  Shear stress-induced reorganization of the surface topography of living endothelial cells imaged by atomic force microscopy. , 1994, Circulation research.

[8]  Z. Stachura,et al.  Elasticity of normal and cancerous human bladder cells studied by scanning force microscopy , 1999, European Biophysics Journal.

[9]  T. Berdyyeva,et al.  Human epithelial cells increase their rigidity with ageing in vitro: direct measurements , 2004, Physics in medicine and biology.

[10]  P. Luckham,et al.  Imaging erythrocytes under physiological conditions by atomic force microscopy. , 2001, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[11]  Experimental and numerical analyses of local mechanical properties measured by atomic force microscopy for sheared endothelial cells. , 2002, Bio-medical materials and engineering.

[12]  H. Wada,et al.  Mechanical properties of sensory and supporting cells in the organ of Corti of the guinea pig cochlea – study by atomic force microscopy , 2004, Hearing Research.

[13]  Nadine Aubry,et al.  Aging increases stiffness of cardiac myocytes measured by atomic force microscopy nanoindentation. , 2003, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[14]  C. Rotsch,et al.  Dimensional and mechanical dynamics of active and stable edges in motile fibroblasts investigated by using atomic force microscopy. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[15]  G. Semenza,et al.  Measuring elasticity of biological materials by atomic force microscopy , 1998, FEBS letters.

[16]  F. MacKintosh,et al.  Scanning probe-based frequency-dependent microrheology of polymer gels and biological cells. , 2000, Physical review letters.

[17]  Hiroshi Wada,et al.  Local mechanical properties of mouse outer hair cells: atomic force microscopic study. , 2006, Auris, nasus, larynx.

[18]  R. Lal,et al.  Dynamic micromechanical properties of cultured rat atrial myocytes measured by atomic force microscopy. , 1995, The American journal of physiology.

[19]  Kevin D. Costa,et al.  Osteoblast Elastic Modulus Measured by Atomic Force Microscopy Is Substrate Dependent , 2005, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[20]  M. Radmacher,et al.  Granula motion and membrane spreading during activation of human platelets imaged by atomic force microscopy. , 1994, Biophysical journal.

[21]  Paul K. Hansma,et al.  From atoms to integrated circuit chips, blood cells, and bacteria with the atomic force microscope , 1990 .

[22]  H. Haga,et al.  Drastic change of local stiffness distribution correlating to cell migration in living fibroblasts. , 2001, Cell motility and the cytoskeleton.

[23]  Daniel A Fletcher,et al.  Force microscopy of nonadherent cells: a comparison of leukemia cell deformability. , 2006, Biophysical journal.

[24]  Y. Yamane,et al.  Quantitative analyses of topography and elasticity of living and fixed astrocytes. , 2000, Journal of electron microscopy.

[25]  Z Stachura,et al.  The effect of chitosan on stiffness and glycolytic activity of human bladder cells. , 2001, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[26]  W. Kraus,et al.  Endothelial, cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle exhibit different viscous and elastic properties as determined by atomic force microscopy. , 2001, Journal of biomechanics.

[27]  C. Steele,et al.  Mechanical properties of the lateral cortex of mammalian auditory outer hair cells. , 1996, Biophysical journal.

[28]  G. Truskey,et al.  Atomic force and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy for the study of force transmission in endothelial cells. , 2000, Biophysical journal.

[29]  William E Kraus,et al.  Stretch-induced nitric oxide modulates mechanical properties of skeletal muscle cells. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Cell physiology.

[30]  P K Hansma,et al.  Measuring the viscoelastic properties of human platelets with the atomic force microscope. , 1996, Biophysical journal.

[31]  W F Heinz,et al.  Relative microelastic mapping of living cells by atomic force microscopy. , 1998, Biophysical journal.

[32]  Xuemei Liang,et al.  Probing small unilamellar EggPC vesicles on mica surface by atomic force microscopy. , 2004, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.

[33]  J. Barbera,et al.  Contact mechanics , 1999 .

[34]  H. Hansma.  Surface biology of DNA by atomic force microscopy. , 2001, Annual review of physical chemistry.

[35]  Paolo Facci,et al.  AFM: a versatile tool in biophysics , 2005 .

[36]  Giovanni Dietler,et al.  Gradient of rigidity in the lamellipodia of migrating cells revealed by atomic force microscopy. , 2005, Biophysical journal.

[37]  C Rotsch,et al.  Drug-induced changes of cytoskeletal structure and mechanics in fibroblasts: an atomic force microscopy study. , 2000, Biophysical journal.

[38]  C. Rotsch,et al.  AFM IMAGING AND ELASTICITY MEASUREMENTS ON LIVING RAT LIVER MACROPHAGES , 1997, Cell biology international.

[39]  Atomic Force Pulling: Probing the Local Elasticity of the Cell Membrane , 2000 .

[40]  H. Haga,et al.  Time-lapse viscoelastic imaging of living fibroblasts using force modulation mode in AFM. , 2000, Journal of electron microscopy.

[41]  K. Nagayama,et al.  Local mechanical properties measured by atomic force microscopy for cultured bovine endothelial cells exposed to shear stress. , 2000, Journal of biomechanics.

[42]  K. Costa,et al.  Analysis of indentation: implications for measuring mechanical properties with atomic force microscopy. , 1999, Journal of biomechanical engineering.

[43]  Relationship between the local stiffness of the outer hair cell along the cell axis and its ultrastructure observed by atomic force microscopy , 2003, Hearing Research.

[44]  V. Moy,et al.  Mechanical properties of L929 cells measured by atomic force microscopy: effects of anticytoskeletal drugs and membrane crosslinking. , 2006, Scanning.

[45]  U G Hofmann,et al.  Investigating the cytoskeleton of chicken cardiocytes with the atomic force microscope. , 1997, Journal of structural biology.

[46]  A. Kusumi,et al.  Structure of the erythrocyte membrane skeleton as observed by atomic force microscopy. , 1998, Biophysical journal.

[47]  William E Kraus,et al.  Apparent elastic modulus and hysteresis of skeletal muscle cells throughout differentiation. , 2002, American journal of physiology. Cell physiology.

[48]  M. R. Mozafari,et al.  A Review of Scanning Probe Microscopy Investigations of Liposome-DNA Complexes , 2005, Journal of liposome research.

[49]  Devrim Pesen,et al.  Micromechanical architecture of the endothelial cell cortex. , 2005, Biophysical journal.

[50]  C Baquey,et al.  Characterization of dynamic cellular adhesion of osteoblasts using atomic force microscopy , 2003, Cytometry. Part A : the journal of the International Society for Analytical Cytology.

[51]  T. Schäffer,et al.  Influence of hydrocortisone on the mechanical properties of the cerebral endothelium in vitro. , 2005, Biophysical journal.

[52]  G. Watson,et al.  Imaging and force-distance analysis of human fibroblasts in vitro by atomic force microscopy. , 1999, Cytometry.

[53]  F Braet,et al.  A comparative atomic force microscopy study on living skin fibroblasts and liver endothelial cells. , 2001, Journal of electron microscopy.

[54]  H. Miyazaki,et al.  Atomic force microscopic measurement of the mechanical properties of intact endothelial cells in fresh arteries , 1999, Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing.

[55]  T Ushiki,et al.  Elastic properties of living fibroblasts as imaged using force modulation mode in atomic force microscopy. , 1998, Archives of histology and cytology.

[56]  C. M. Peterson,et al.  Imaging cells with the atomic force microscope. , 1990, Journal of structural biology.

[57]  R. Mahaffy,et al.  Quantitative analysis of the viscoelastic properties of thin regions of fibroblasts using atomic force microscopy. , 2004, Biophysical journal.

[58]  F. Kajiya,et al.  Kinetic study on the elastic change of vascular endothelial cells on collagen matrices by atomic force microscopy. , 2004, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.

[59]  S. Timoshenko,et al.  THEORY OF PLATES AND SHELLS , 1959 .

[60]  K. Barbee.  Changes in surface topography in endothelial monolayers with time at confluence: influence on subcellular shear stress distribution due to flow. , 1995, Biochemistry and cell biology = Biochimie et biologie cellulaire.

[61]  F. Kienberger,et al.  Imaging morphological details and pathological differences of red blood cells using tapping-mode AFM , 2004, Biological chemistry.

[62]  M. Radmacher,et al.  Substrate dependent differences in morphology and elasticity of living osteoblasts investigated by atomic force microscopy. , 2000, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.