Bond-rupture immunosensors--a review.

It has long been the goal of researchers to develop fast and reliable point-of-care alternatives to existing lab-based tests. A viable point-of-care biosensor is fast, reliable, simple, cost-effective, and detects low concentrations of the target analyte. The target of biosensors is biological such as bacteria or virus and as such, the antibody-antigen bond derived from the real immune response is used. Biosensor applications include lab-based tests for the purposes of diagnostics, drug discovery, and research. Additional applications include environmental, food, and agricultural monitoring. The main merits of the bond-rupture method are quick, simple, and capable of discriminating between specific and non-specific interactions. The separation of specific and non-specific bonds is important for working in real-life complex serums such as blood. The bond-rupture technique can provide both qualitative results, the detection of a target, and quantitative results, the concentration of target. Bond-rupture achieves this by a label-free method requiring no pre-processing of the analyte. A piezoelectric transducer such as the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) shakes the bound particles free from the surface. Other transducers such as Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) are also considered. The rupture of the bonds is detected as electronic noise. This review article links diverse research areas to build a picture of a field still in development.

[1]  J. Schroder,et al.  Is an oscillator-based measurement adequate in a liquid environment? , 2002, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control.

[2]  H. Grubmüller,et al.  Molecular dynamics force probe simulations of antibody/antigen unbinding: entropic control and nonadditivity of unbinding forces. , 2001, Biophysical journal.

[3]  Mark E. Cooper,et al.  Biosensing using rupture event scanning (REVS) , 2003 .

[4]  Energy landscapes of ligand-receptor couples probed by dynamic force spectroscopy. , 2001, Chemphyschem : a European journal of chemical physics and physical chemistry.

[5]  J. Brice.  Crystals for quartz resonators , 1985 .

[6]  D. Klenerman,et al.  Direct and quantitative detection of bacteriophage by "hearing" surface detachment using a quartz crystal microbalance. , 2001, Analytical chemistry.

[7]  J. Bronlund,et al.  Quartz Crystal Microbalance Induced Bond Rupture Sensing for Medical Diagnostics , 2007, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[8]  Cetin Cetinkaya,et al.  Non-contact microsphere--surface adhesion measurement via acoustic base excitations. , 2005, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[9]  M. C. Horrillo,et al.  Differentiation of red wines using an electronic nose based on surface acoustic wave devices. , 2006, Talanta.

[10]  T. Wink,et al.  Self-assembled monolayers for biosensors. , 1997, The Analyst.

[11]  D. Chan,et al.  Immunosensors--principles and applications to clinical chemistry. , 2001, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[12]  Kerstin Länge,et al.  Integration of a surface acoustic wave biosensor in a microfluidic polymer chip. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[13]  D P Gaver,et al.  A theoretical model study of the influence of fluid stresses on a cell adhering to a microchannel wall. , 1998, Biophysical journal.

[14]  Ying-Jie Zhu,et al.  Loading-rate dependence of individual ligand-receptor bond-rupture forces studied by atomic force microscopy , 2001 .

[15]  D. Allara,et al.  Spontaneously organized molecular assemblies. 4. Structural characterization of n-alkyl thiol monolayers on gold by optical ellipsometry, infrared spectroscopy, and electrochemistry , 1987 .

[16]  O. Tigli,et al.  A Novel Saw Device in CMOS: Design, Modeling, and Fabrication , 2007, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[17]  R. Merkel,et al.  Energy landscapes of receptor–ligand bonds explored with dynamic force spectroscopy , 1999, Nature.

[18]  E. Evans,et al.  Strength of a weak bond connecting flexible polymer chains. , 1999, Biophysical journal.

[19]  H. Ogi,et al.  Wireless electrodeless piezomagnetic biosensor with an isolated nickel oscillator. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[20]  G. L. Harding,et al.  A study of Love-wave acoustic sensors , 1996 .

[21]  M. Smith,et al.  Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis of DNA fragments cloned into M13 vectors. , 1983, Methods in Enzymology.

[22]  Hiroshi Muramatsu,et al.  The principle and applications of piezoelectric crystal sensors , 2000 .

[23]  Yolanda Jiménez,et al.  Circuit for continuous motional series resonant frequency and motional resistance monitoring of quartz crystal resonators by parallel capacitance compensation , 2002 .

[24]  S Hunklinger,et al.  A contactless surface acoustic wave biosensor. , 1999, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[25]  Matthew A. Cooper,et al.  Direct and sensitive detection of a human virus by rupture event scanning , 2001, Nature Biotechnology.

[26]  M. V. Voinova,et al.  Dynamics of viscous amphiphilic films supported by elastic solid substrates , 1997 .

[27]  R. Lucklum,et al.  Interface circuits for quartz-crystal-microbalance sensors , 1999 .

[28]  Daniele Marioli,et al.  Oscillator circuit configuration for quartz-crystal-resonator sensors subject to heavy acoustic load , 2000 .

[29]  J. Cooper,et al.  All-Digital Interface ASIC for a QCM-Based Electronic Nose , 2004 .

[30]  D. Bunka,et al.  Aptamers come of age – at last , 2006, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[31]  David Klenerman,et al.  “Hearing” Bond Breakage. Measurement of Bond Rupture Forces Using a Quartz Crystal Microbalance , 2000 .

[32]  E. Benes,et al.  Sensors based on piezoelectric resonators , 1995 .

[33]  Matthew A Cooper,et al.  Direct quantification of analyte concentration by resonant acoustic profiling. , 2005, Clinical chemistry.

[34]  Hirotsugu Ogi,et al.  Isolated electrodeless high-frequency quartz crystal microbalance for immunosensors. , 2006, Analytical chemistry.

[35]  Hidenobu Aizawa,et al.  Immunosensors using a quartz crystal microbalance , 2003 .

[36]  M. Rief,et al.  How strong is a covalent bond? , 1999, Science.

[37]  E. Evans.  Probing the relation between force--lifetime--and chemistry in single molecular bonds. , 2001, Annual review of biophysics and biomolecular structure.

[38]  M. Mascini,et al.  Aptamer-based biosensors for the detection of HIV-1 Tat protein. , 2005, Bioelectrochemistry.

[39]  Kerstin Länge,et al.  A surface acoustic wave biosensor concept with low flow cell volumes for label-free detection. , 2003, Analytical chemistry.

[40]  M. Rapp,et al.  Covalent bound sensing layers on surface acoustic wave (SAW) biosensors. , 2001, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[41]  M. Cooper,et al.  Real-time label-free acoustic technology for rapid detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7. , 2006, Clinical chemistry.

[42]  Andreas Janshoff,et al.  Quartz Crystal Microbalance for Bioanalytical Applications , 2001 .

[43]  B. Drafts.  Acoustic wave technology sensors , 2001 .

[44]  Andrea Taroni,et al.  Improving the accuracy and operating range of quartz microbalance sensors by a purposely designed oscillator circuit , 2001, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas..

[45]  J. Luong,et al.  Enzyme or protein immobilization techniques for applications in biosensor design , 1995 .

[46]  C. Steinem,et al.  Piezoelectric Mass-Sensing Devices as Biosensors-An Alternative to Optical Biosensors? , 2000, Angewandte Chemie.

[47]  Claude Gabrielli,et al.  Performances and limits of a parallel oscillator for electrochemical quartz crystal microbalances. , 2002, Analytical chemistry.

[48]  John E Bronlund,et al.  Bond rupture of biomolecular interactions by resonant quartz crystal. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[49]  P. D'Orazio.  Biosensors in clinical chemistry. , 2003, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[50]  G. Sauerbrey.  Verwendung von Schwingquarzen zur Wägung dünner Schichten und zur Mikrowägung , 1959 .

[51]  J. Gordon,et al.  Frequency of a quartz microbalance in contact with liquid , 1985 .

[52]  P Kolb,et al.  Energy landscape of streptavidin-biotin complexes measured by atomic force microscopy. , 2000, Biochemistry.

[53]  Mohamad Sawan,et al.  Novel direct-write CMOS-based laboratory-on-chip: Design, assembly and experimental results , 2007 .

[54]  Jay W. Grate,et al.  Acoustic Wave Sensors , 1996 .

[55]  Hideaki Nakamura,et al.  Current research activity in biosensors , 2003, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[56]  P. Tavan,et al.  Ligand Binding: Molecular Mechanics Calculation of the Streptavidin-Biotin Rupture Force , 1996, Science.

[57]  T. Lybrand,et al.  Streptavidin-biotin binding energetics. , 1999, Biomolecular engineering.

[58]  Matthew A Cooper,et al.  A survey of the 2001 to 2005 quartz crystal microbalance biosensor literature: applications of acoustic physics to the analysis of biomolecular interactions , 2007, Journal of molecular recognition : JMR.

[59]  S. Menzel,et al.  Investigation of high power effects on Ti/Al and Ta-Si-N/Cu/Ta-Si-N electrodes for SAW devices , 2005, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control.

[60]  E. Evans,et al.  Dynamic strength of molecular adhesion bonds. , 1997, Biophysical journal.

[61]  Jens Schröder,et al.  Advanced interface electronics and methods for QCM , 2002 .

[62]  Cheng Zhu,et al.  Quantifying the Effects of Molecular Orientation and Length on Two-dimensional Receptor-Ligand Binding Kinetics* , 2004, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[63]  Fredrik Höök,et al.  A dual-frequency QCM-D setup operating at elevated oscillation amplitudes. , 2005, Analytical chemistry.

[64]  R. Yu,et al.  Nanogold particle-enhanced oriented adsorption of antibody fragments for immunosensing platforms. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[65]  M. Thompson,et al.  Electromagnetic excitation of high frequency acoustic waves and detection in the liquid phase , 2003 .

[66]  Jeong-Woo Choi,et al.  Surface plasmon resonance immunosensor for the detection of Salmonella typhimurium. , 2004, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[67]  Peter Hauptmann,et al.  New design for QCM sensors in liquids , 1995 .

[68]  X. D. Hoa,et al.  Towards integrated and sensitive surface plasmon resonance biosensors: a review of recent progress. , 2007, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[69]  P. Reimann,et al.  Theoretical analysis of dynamic force spectroscopy experiments on ligand-receptor complexes. , 2004, Journal of biotechnology.

[70]  Jacqueline Krim,et al.  Scanning tunneling microscope measurements of the amplitude of vibration of a quartz crystal oscillator , 2000 .

[71]  G. Sauerbrey,et al.  Use of quartz vibration for weighing thin films on a microbalance , 1959 .

[72]  P. Hänggi,et al.  Reaction-rate theory: fifty years after Kramers , 1990 .

[73]  E. Evans,et al.  Sensitive force technique to probe molecular adhesion and structural linkages at biological interfaces. , 1995, Biophysical journal.

[74]  Clinical analyzers. Immunoassays. , 1999, Analytical chemistry.

[75]  A. Hierlemann,et al.  Microfabrication techniques for chemical/biosensors , 2003, Proc. IEEE.