The dsRNA binding protein family: critical roles, diverse cellular functions

The dsRNA binding proteins (DRBPs) comprise a growing family of eukaryotic, prokaryotic, and viral‐encoded products that share a common evolutionarily conserved motif specifically facilitating interaction with dsRNA. Proteins harboring dsRNA binding domains (DRBDs) have been reported to interact with as little as 11 bp of dsRNA, an event that is independent of nucleotide sequence arrangement. More than 20 DRBPs have been identified and reportedly function in a diverse range of critically important roles in the cell. Examples include the dsRNA‐dependent protein kinase PKR that functions in dsRNA signaling and host defense against virus infection and DICER, which is implicated in RNA interference (RNAi) ‐mediated gene silencing. Other DRBPs such as Staufen, adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR), and spermatid perinuclear RNA binding protein (SPNR) are known to play essential roles in development, translation, RNA editing, and stability. In many cases, homozygous and even heterozygous disruption of DRBPs in animal models results in embryonic lethality. These results implicate the recognition of dsRNA as an evolutionarily conserved mechanism important in the regulation of gene expression and in host defense and underscore the diversity of essential biological tasks performed by dsRNA‐related processes in the cell.—Saunders, L. R., Barber, G. N. The dsRNA binding protein family: critical roles, diverse cellular functionsFASEB J. 17, 961–983 (2003)

[1]  V. Ambros,et al.  The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14 , 1993, Cell.

[2]  R. Silverman,et al.  Blockage of NF-kappa B signaling by selective ablation of an mRNA target by 2-5A antisense chimeras. , 1994, Science.

[3]  I. London,et al.  Regulation of protein synthesis: activation by double-stranded RNA of a protein kinase that phosphorylates eukaryotic initiation factor 2. , 1978, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[4]  D. Frendewey,et al.  Purification and characterization of the Pac1 ribonuclease of Schizosaccharomyces pombe. , 1996, Nucleic acids research.

[5]  M. Mathews,et al.  Activities of adenovirus virus-associated RNAs: purification and characterization of RNA binding proteins. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[6]  B. Bass,et al.  A Xenopus zinc finger protein that specifically binds dsRNA and RNA-DNA hybrids. , 1997, Journal of molecular biology.

[7]  B. Jacobs,et al.  Inhibitory activity for the interferon-induced protein kinase is associated with the reovirus serotype 1 sigma 3 protein. , 1988, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[8]  P. Kao,et al.  Purification by DNA affinity chromatography of two polypeptides that contact the NF-AT DNA binding site in the interleukin 2 promoter. , 1994, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[9]  T. Hunt,et al.  The characteristics of inhibition of protein synthesis by double-stranded ribonucleic acid in reticulocyte lysates. , 1975, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[10]  S. Silverstein,et al.  The reovirus replicative cycle. , 1976, Annual Review of Biochemistry.

[11]  C. Samuel,et al.  Expression and regulation by interferon of a double-stranded-RNA-specific adenosine deaminase from human cells: evidence for two forms of the deaminase , 1995, Molecular and cellular biology.

[12]  P. Seeburg,et al.  A mammalian RNA editing enzyme , 1996, Nature.

[13]  A. Chatterjee,et al.  Statistical Modelling and phylogenetic Analysis of a Deaminase Domain , 1998, J. Comput. Biol..

[14]  K. Nishikura,et al.  A third member of the RNA-specific adenosine deaminase gene family, ADAR3, contains both single- and double-stranded RNA binding domains. , 2000, RNA.

[15]  S. Tutton,et al.  Specific Double-Stranded RNA Interference in Undifferentiated Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells , 2001, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[16]  I. Mian,et al.  A Z-DNA binding domain present in the human editing enzyme, double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminase. , 1997, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[17]  N. Seeman,et al.  Sequence-specific Recognition of Double Helical Nucleic Acids by Proteins (base Pairs/hydrogen Bonding/recognition Fidelity/ion Binding) , 2022 .

[18]  C. Samuel,et al.  Mechanism of interferon action: double-stranded RNA-specific adenosine deaminase from human cells is inducible by alpha and gamma interferons. , 1995, Virology.

[19]  M. Seldin,et al.  Human/mouse homology relationships. , 1996, Genomics.

[20]  F. Fuller-Pace,et al.  The highly related DEAD box RNA helicases p68 and p72 exist as heterodimers in cells. , 2003, Nucleic acids research.

[21]  Louise Wickham,et al.  Mammalian Staufen Is a Double-Stranded-RNA- and Tubulin-Binding Protein Which Localizes to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum , 1999, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[22]  U. Scheffer,et al.  Mode of action of the anti-AIDS compound poly(I).poly(C12U) (Ampligen): activator of 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase and double-stranded RNA-dependent kinase. , 1993, Journal of interferon research.

[23]  M. Jantsch,et al.  The human but not the Xenopus RNA-editing enzyme ADAR1 has an atypical nuclear localization signal and displays the characteristics of a shuttling protein. , 2001, Molecular biology of the cell.

[24]  Aseem Kumar,et al.  Double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase activates transcription factor NF-kappa B by phosphorylating I kappa B. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[25]  K. Nishikura,et al.  Editing of glutamate receptor B subunit ion channel RNAs by four alternatively spliced DRADA2 double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminases , 1997, Molecular and cellular biology.

[26]  Donald Court,et al.  5 – RNA Processing and Degradation by RNase III , 1993 .

[27]  D. Hudson,et al.  Analysis of arginine-rich peptides from the HIV Tat protein reveals unusual features of RNA-protein recognition. , 1991, Genes & development.

[28]  Jeffrey D. Parvin,et al.  RNA Helicase A Mediates Association of CBP with RNA Polymerase II , 1997, Cell.

[29]  B. Williams,et al.  Structure of the double‐stranded RNA‐binding domain of the protein kinase PKR reveals the molecular basis of its dsRNA‐mediated activation , 1998, The EMBO journal.

[30]  M. Perkus,et al.  Reversal of the interferon-sensitive phenotype of a vaccinia virus lacking E3L by expression of the reovirus S4 gene , 1995, Journal of virology.

[31]  Brenda L. Bass,et al.  RNA editing of hepatitis delta virus antigenome by dsRNA-adenosine deaminase , 1996, Nature.

[32]  R. I. Glazer,et al.  Effects of fibroblast and recombinant leukocyte interferons and double-stranded RNA on ppp(2'-5')An synthesis and cell proliferation in human colon carcinoma cells in vitro. , 1983, Cancer research.

[33]  D. Rose,et al.  A role for RNA helicase A in post-transcriptional regulation of HIV type 1. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[34]  H D Robertson,et al.  Purification and properties of ribonuclease III from Escherichia coli. , 1968, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[35]  C. Mello,et al.  The dsRNA Binding Protein RDE-4 Interacts with RDE-1, DCR-1, and a DExH-Box Helicase to Direct RNAi in C. elegans , 2002, Cell.

[36]  Tyson V. Sharp,et al.  The vaccinia virus E3L gene product interacts with both the regulatory and the substrate binding regions of PKR: implications for PKR autoregulation. , 1998, Virology.

[37]  M. Mathews,et al.  Proteins binding to duplexed RNA: one motif, multiple functions. , 2000, Trends in biochemical sciences.

[38]  John J. Holland,et al.  Vesicular stomatitis virus defective interfering particles can contain extensive genomic sequence rearrangements and base substitutions , 1984, Cell.

[39]  P. Kao,et al.  Nuclear factor-90 of activated T-cells: A double-stranded RNA-binding protein and substrate for the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR. , 1999, Biochemistry.

[40]  J. Langland,et al.  Products of the porcine group C rotavirus NSP3 gene bind specifically to double-stranded RNA and inhibit activation of the interferon-induced protein kinase PKR , 1994, Journal of virology.

[41]  D. St Johnston,et al.  Distinct roles of two conserved Staufen domains in oskar mRNA localization and translation , 2000, The EMBO journal.

[42]  B. Bass,et al.  Binding properties of newly identified Xenopus proteins containing dsRNA-binding motifs , 1994, Current Biology.

[43]  S. Iuchi,et al.  Three classes of C2H2 zinc finger proteins , 2001, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences CMLS.

[44]  Chao-Kuen Lai,et al.  Transcription Repression of Human Hepatitis B Virus Genes by Negative Regulatory Element-binding Protein/SON* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[45]  S. Antonarakis,et al.  Localization of a novel human RNA-editing deaminase (hRED2 or ADARB2) to chromosome 10p15 , 1997, Human Genetics.

[46]  K. Manova,et al.  RNA helicase A is essential for normal gastrulation. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[47]  F. van der Wilk,et al.  Characteristics of acyrthosiphon pisum virus, a newly identified virus infecting the pea aphid. , 1997, Journal of invertebrate pathology.

[48]  L. DesGroseillers,et al.  Localization of a human double-stranded RNA-binding protein gene (STAU) to band 20q13.1 by fluorescence in situ hybridization. , 1996, Genomics.

[49]  A. Nicholson,et al.  Intrinsic double-stranded-RNA processing activity of Escherichia coli ribonuclease III lacking the dsRNA-binding domain. , 2001, Biochemistry.

[50]  M. Hilleman,et al.  Inducers of interferon and host resistance. 3. Double-stranded RNA from reovirus type 3 virions (reo 3-RNA). , 1967, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[51]  M. Paupard,et al.  Patterns of developmental expression of the RNA editing enzyme rADAR2 , 1999, Neuroscience.

[52]  G. Guellaen,et al.  Expression of the TAR RNA binding protein in human testis. , 2001, Molecular human reproduction.

[53]  K. Ozato,et al.  Heterologous dimerization domains functionally substitute for the double‐stranded RNA binding domains of the kinase PKR , 2001, The EMBO journal.

[54]  N. Sonenberg,et al.  Double-stranded-RNA-dependent protein kinase and TAR RNA-binding protein form homo- and heterodimers in vivo. , 1995, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[55]  G. Sen,et al.  PACT, a protein activator of the interferon‐induced protein kinase, PKR , 1998, The EMBO journal.

[56]  A. Pasquinelli,et al.  Genes and Mechanisms Related to RNA Interference Regulate Expression of the Small Temporal RNAs that Control C. elegans Developmental Timing , 2001, Cell.

[57]  C. Dehio,et al.  Identification of plant genetic loci involved in a posttranscriptional mechanism for meiotically reversible transgene silencing. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[58]  K. Gardiner,et al.  Map location, genomic organization and expression patterns of the human RED1 RNA editase , 1997, Somatic cell and molecular genetics.

[59]  B. Berkhout,et al.  Characterization of a human TAR RNA-binding protein that activates the HIV-1 LTR. , 1991, Science.

[60]  Fengqin Gao,et al.  Ceramide Regulates Protein Synthesis by a Novel Mechanism Involving the Cellular PKR Activator RAX* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[61]  A. Pasquinelli,et al.  A Cellular Function for the RNA-Interference Enzyme Dicer in the Maturation of the let-7 Small Temporal RNA , 2001, Science.

[62]  I. Macara,et al.  Exportin-5, a novel karyopherin, mediates nuclear export of double-stranded RNA binding proteins , 2002, The Journal of cell biology.

[63]  A. Panet Regulation of the antiviral and anticellular activities of interferon by exogenous double-stranded RNA , 2004, Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry.

[64]  Dirk Feldmeyer,et al.  Early-Onset Epilepsy and Postnatal Lethality Associated with an Editing-Deficient GluR-B Allele in Mice , 1995, Science.

[65]  F. Grosse,et al.  Nucleolar localization of murine nuclear DNA helicase II (RNA helicase A). , 1999, Journal of cell science.

[66]  Suzanne Cheng,et al.  GART, SON, IFNAR, and CRF2-4 genes cluster on human Chromosome 21 and mouse Chromosome 16 , 2004, Mammalian Genome.

[67]  A. Hinnebusch,et al.  Binding of Double-stranded RNA to Protein Kinase PKR Is Required for Dimerization and Promotes Critical Autophosphorylation Events in the Activation Loop* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[68]  I. Kerr,et al.  Interferon-mediated, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase is inhibited in extracts from vaccinia virus-infected cells , 1984, Journal of virology.

[69]  M. Iordanov,et al.  Activation of NF-κB by Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the Absence of Protein Kinase R and RNase L Demonstrates the Existence of Two Separate dsRNA-Triggered Antiviral Programs , 2001, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[70]  Steven P. Gygi,et al.  Comprehensive proteomic analysis of the human spliceosome , 2002, Nature.

[71]  A. Nicholson,et al.  Mechanism of action of Escherichia coli ribonuclease III. Stringent chemical requirement for the glutamic acid 117 side chain and Mn2+ rescue of the Glu117Asp mutant. , 2001, Biochemistry.

[72]  M. Kuroda,et al.  RNA‐dependent association of the Drosophila maleless protein with the male X chromosome , 1996, Genes to cells : devoted to molecular & cellular mechanisms.

[73]  T. Mak,et al.  Activation of the dsRNA‐dependent protein kinase, PKR, induces apoptosis through FADD‐mediated death signaling , 1998, The EMBO journal.

[74]  H. Atkins,et al.  Characterization of Transgenic Mice with Targeted Disruption of the Catalytic Domain of the Double-stranded RNA-dependent Protein Kinase, PKR* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[75]  K. Jeang,et al.  Characterization of TRBP1 and TRBP2. Stable stem-loop structure at the 5' end of TRBP2 mRNA resembles HIV-1 TAR and is not found in its processed pseudogene. , 2000, Journal of biomedical science.

[76]  Karyn N. Johnson,et al.  The novel genome organization of the insect picorna-like virus Drosophila C virus suggests this virus belongs to a previously undescribed virus family. , 1998, The Journal of general virology.

[77]  K. Nishikura,et al.  Genomic organization and chromosomal location of the human dsRNA adenosine deaminase gene: the enzyme for glutamate-activated ion channel RNA editing. , 1995, Journal of molecular biology.

[78]  M. Kiebler,et al.  Microtubule-dependent recruitment of Staufen-green fluorescent protein into large RNA-containing granules and subsequent dendritic transport in living hippocampal neurons. , 1999, Molecular biology of the cell.

[79]  K. Nishikura,et al.  Mutagenic Analysis of Double-stranded RNA Adenosine Deaminase, a Candidate Enzyme for RNA Editing of Glutamate-gated Ion Channel Transcripts (*) , 1995, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[80]  Dominique Ferrandon,et al.  Staufen protein associates with the 3′UTR of bicoid mRNA to form particles that move in a microtubule-dependent manner , 1994, Cell.

[81]  S. Sato,et al.  Substrate recognition by ADAR1 and ADAR2. , 2001, RNA.

[82]  Alexander Rich,et al.  Structure of the DLM-1–Z-DNA complex reveals a conserved family of Z-DNA-binding proteins , 2018, Nature Structural Biology.

[83]  P. Seeburg,et al.  RNA editing of AMPA receptor subunit GluR-B: A base-paired intron-exon structure determines position and efficiency , 1993, Cell.

[84]  I. London,et al.  Inhibition of protein synthesis in rabbit reticulocyte lysates by double-stranded RNA and oxidized glutathione: indirect mode of action on polypeptide chain initiation. , 1975, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[85]  M. Katze,et al.  Malignant transformation by a mutant of the IFN-inducible dsRNA-dependent protein kinase. , 1992, Science.

[86]  R. Braun,et al.  Requirement for the Murine Zinc Finger Protein ZFR in Perigastrulation Growth and Survival , 2001, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[87]  Madhur Kumar,et al.  Nuclear antisense RNA induces extensive adenosine modifications and nuclear retention of target transcripts. , 1997, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[88]  M. Katze Regulation of the interferon-induced PKR: can viruses cope? , 1995, Trends in microbiology.

[89]  Xinghai Li,et al.  B56-Associated Protein Phosphatase 2A Is Required For Survival and Protects from Apoptosis in Drosophila melanogaster , 2002, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[90]  E. Evguenieva-Hackenberg,et al.  Both N‐terminal catalytic and C‐terminal RNA binding domain contribute to substrate specificity and cleavage site selection of RNase III , 2001, FEBS letters.

[91]  P. Gruss,et al.  Mice deficient for spermatid perinuclear RNA-binding protein show neurologic, spermatogenic, and sperm morphological abnormalities. , 2001, Developmental biology.

[92]  N. Duchange,et al.  Alternative splicing in the human interleukin enhancer binding factor 3 (ILF3) gene. , 2000, Gene.

[93]  M. Jantsch,et al.  Xlrbpa, a Double-stranded RNA-binding Protein Associated with Ribosomes and Heterogeneous Nuclear RNPs , 1997, The Journal of cell biology.

[94]  E. Paoletti,et al.  TAR RNA-binding protein is an inhibitor of the interferon-induced protein kinase PKR. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[95]  F. Grosse,et al.  Domain Structure of Human Nuclear DNA Helicase II (RNA Helicase A)* , 1997, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[96]  J. Casey RNA Editing in Hepatitis Delta Virus Genotype III Requires a Branched Double-Hairpin RNA Structure , 2002, Journal of Virology.

[97]  Robert H. Silverman,et al.  Activation of p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase and c-Jun NH2-Terminal Kinase by Double-Stranded RNA and Encephalomyocarditis Virus: Involvement of RNase L, Protein Kinase R, and Alternative Pathways , 2000, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[98]  J. V. Van Etten,et al.  Analysis of 43 kb of the Chlorella virus PBCV-1 330-kb genome: map positions 45 to 88. , 1995, Virology.

[99]  A. Aguzzi,et al.  Deficient signaling in mice devoid of double‐stranded RNA‐dependent protein kinase. , 1995, The EMBO journal.

[100]  I. Kerr,et al.  Molecular cloning and characterization of the human double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase induced by interferon , 1990, Cell.

[101]  M. Jantsch,et al.  The double‐stranded RNA‐binding domains of Xenopus laevis ADAR1 exhibit different RNA‐binding behaviors , 1998, FEBS letters.

[102]  D. Feldmeyer,et al.  Point mutation in an AMPA receptor gene rescues lethality in mice deficient in the RNA-editing enzyme ADAR2 , 2000, Nature.

[103]  B. Bass,et al.  RNA hairpins in noncoding regions of human brain and Caenorhabditis elegans mRNA are edited by adenosine deaminases that act on RNA , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[104]  L. Law,et al.  Inhibition of tumor growth by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid. , 1969, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[105]  C. Disteche,et al.  Identification of ZFR, an ancient and highly conserved murine chromosome-associated zinc finger protein. , 1999, Gene.

[106]  A. Fire,et al.  Functional anatomy of a dsRNA trigger: differential requirement for the two trigger strands in RNA interference. , 2000, Molecular cell.

[107]  K. Schappert,et al.  Human p68 kinase exhibits growth suppression in yeast and homology to the translational regulator GCN2. , 1992, The EMBO journal.

[108]  D. Apirion,et al.  The synthesis of some proteins is affected in RNA processing mutants of Escherichia coli. , 1980, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[109]  J. Parvin,et al.  BRCA1 protein is linked to the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme complex via RNA helicase A , 1998, Nature Genetics.

[110]  M. Karin,et al.  JNK2 and IKKbeta are required for activating the innate response to viral infection. , 1999, Immunity.

[111]  R. Reenan,et al.  dADAR, a Drosophila double-stranded RNA-specific adenosine deaminase is highly developmentally regulated and is itself a target for RNA editing. , 2000, RNA.

[112]  A. Hovanessian,et al.  Autophosphorylation of the protein kinase dependent on double-stranded RNA. , 1987, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[113]  P. Seeburg,et al.  Cloning of a human RNA editing deaminase (ADARB1) of glutamate receptors that maps to chromosome 21q22.3. , 1997, Genomics.

[114]  P. Zamore,et al.  ATP Requirements and Small Interfering RNA Structure in the RNA Interference Pathway , 2001, Cell.

[115]  N. Gupta,et al.  Protein synthesis in rabbit reticulocytes. Purification and characterization of a double-stranded RNA-dependent protein synthesis inhibitor from reticulocyte lysates. , 1981, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[116]  R. Fleischmann,et al.  Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd. , 1995, Science.

[117]  J. Dunn RNase III cleavage of single-stranded RNA. Effect of ionic strength on the fideltiy of cleavage. , 1976, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[118]  J. Hurwitz,et al.  The Human RNA Helicase A (DDX9) Gene Maps to the Prostate Cancer Susceptibility Locus at Chromosome Band 1q25 and Its Pseudogene (DDX9P) to 13q22, Respectively , 1999, Somatic cell and molecular genetics.

[119]  B. Bass,et al.  RNA editing of hepatitis delta virus antigenome by dsRNA-adenosine deaminase , 1996, Nature.

[120]  R. Braun,et al.  A double-stranded RNA binding protein required for activation of repressed messages in mammalian germ cells , 1999, Nature Genetics.

[121]  T. Tuschl,et al.  RNA interference is mediated by 21- and 22-nucleotide RNAs. , 2001, Genes & development.

[122]  B. Bass,et al.  Analysis of Xenopus dsRNA adenosine deaminase cDNAs reveals similarities to DNA methyltransferases. , 1997, RNA.

[123]  K. Oishi,et al.  Maleless, a recessive autosomal mutant of Drosophila melanogaster that specifically kills male zygotes. , 1975, Genetics.

[124]  B Tidor,et al.  Arginine-mediated RNA recognition: the arginine fork , 1991, Science.

[125]  R. Wek,et al.  Inhibitory sequences in the N-terminus of the double-stranded-RNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR, are important for regulating phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2alpha (eIF2alpha). , 2001, European journal of biochemistry.

[126]  Alex Bateman,et al.  The InterPro database, an integrated documentation resource for protein families, domains and functional sites , 2001, Nucleic Acids Res..

[127]  J. Hurwitz,et al.  A new RNA helicase isolated from HeLa cells that catalytically translocates in the 3' to 5' direction. , 1992, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[128]  A. Caudy,et al.  Role for a bidentate ribonuclease in the initiation step of RNA interference , 2001 .

[129]  M. Gariglio,et al.  Activation of Interferon-Inducible Genes in Mice by Poly rI:rC or Alloantigens , 1991, Journal of immunotherapy : official journal of the Society for Biological Therapy.

[130]  Mingli Yang,et al.  RAX, a Cellular Activator for Double-stranded RNA-dependent Protein Kinase during Stress Signaling* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[131]  K. Jeang,et al.  Characterization of TRBP1 and TRBP2 , 2000, Journal of Biomedical Science.

[132]  C. Hornyik,et al.  A viral protein suppresses RNA silencing and binds silencing‐generated, 21‐ to 25‐nucleotide double‐stranded RNAs , 2002, The EMBO journal.

[133]  A. Wargelius,et al.  Double-stranded RNA induces specific developmental defects in zebrafish embryos. , 1999, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[134]  B. Bass,et al.  Deamination of mammalian glutamate receptor RNA by Xenopus dsRNA adenosine deaminase: similarities to in vivo RNA editing. , 1995, RNA.

[135]  A W Nicholson,et al.  Structure, reactivity, and biology of double-stranded RNA. , 1996, Progress in nucleic acid research and molecular biology.

[136]  Patrick J. Paddison,et al.  Stable suppression of gene expression by RNAi in mammalian cells , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[137]  A. Nicholson,et al.  Molecular characterization of a mouse cDNA encoding Dicer, a ribonuclease III ortholog involved in RNA interference , 2002, Mammalian Genome.

[138]  F. Slack,et al.  The lin-41 RBCC gene acts in the C. elegans heterochronic pathway between the let-7 regulatory RNA and the LIN-29 transcription factor. , 2000, Molecular cell.

[139]  R. M. Marión,et al.  A Human Sequence Homologue of Staufen Is an RNA-Binding Protein That Is Associated with Polysomes and Localizes to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum , 1999, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[140]  Shiyong Wu,et al.  A Model for the Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-dependent Dimerization and Activation of the dsRNA-activated Protein Kinase PKR* , 1997, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[141]  J. G. Patton,et al.  A new double-stranded RNA-binding protein that interacts with PKR. , 2000, Nucleic acids research.

[142]  M. Higuchi,et al.  Cloning of cDNAs encoding mammalian double-stranded RNA-specific adenosine deaminase , 1995, Molecular and cellular biology.

[143]  R. Reenan,et al.  A-to-I Pre-mRNA Editing in Drosophila Is Primarily Involved in Adult Nervous System Function and Integrity , 2000, Cell.

[144]  M. Katze,et al.  Tumor suppressor function of the interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase. , 1993, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[145]  F. Grosse,et al.  Purification and characterization of two DNA helicases from calf thymus nuclei. , 1991, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[146]  D. Rhodes Structural analysis of a triple complex between the histone octamer, a Xenopus gene for 5S RNA and transcription factor IIIA. , 1985, The EMBO journal.

[147]  M. Yamamoto,et al.  S. pombe pac1+, whose overexpression inhibits sexual development, encodes a ribonuclease III‐like RNase. , 1991, The EMBO journal.

[148]  C. Smith,et al.  Specific cleavage of hyper‐edited dsRNAs , 2001, The EMBO journal.

[149]  J. Hurwitz,et al.  Molecular analysis of the cDNA and genomic DNA encoding mouse RNA helicase A. , 1998, Genomics.

[150]  M. Luo,et al.  The Double-Stranded RNA-Binding Protein Staufen Is Incorporated in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1: Evidence for a Role in Genomic RNA Encapsidation , 2000, Journal of Virology.

[151]  D. Rock,et al.  Genome of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus , 2001, Journal of Virology.

[152]  C. Samuel,et al.  Mechanism of interferon action: characterization of the intermolecular autophosphorylation of PKR, the interferon-inducible, RNA-dependent protein kinase , 1995, Journal of virology.

[153]  J. Langland,et al.  Reovirus σ3 Protein: dsRNA Binding and Inhibition of RNA-Activated Protein Kinase , 1998 .

[154]  S. Jacobsen,et al.  Disruption of an RNA helicase/RNAse III gene in Arabidopsis causes unregulated cell division in floral meristems. , 1999, Development.

[155]  Yong Liu,et al.  Functionally Distinct Double-stranded RNA-binding Domains Associated with Alternative Splice Site Variants of the Interferon-inducible Double-stranded RNA-specific Adenosine Deaminase* , 1997, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[156]  B. Bass,et al.  A Role for the RNase III Enzyme DCR-1 in RNA Interference and Germ Line Development in Caenorhabditis elegans , 2001, Science.

[157]  F. Grosse,et al.  Pre-mRNA and mRNA binding of human nuclear DNA helicase II (RNA helicase A). , 1999, Journal of cell science.

[158]  Mitzi I. Kuroda,et al.  Epigenetic Aspects of X-Chromosome Dosage Compensation , 2001, Science.

[159]  Mingli Yang,et al.  JAZ Requires the Double-stranded RNA-binding Zinc Finger Motifs for Nuclear Localization* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[160]  S. Der,et al.  A double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase-dependent pathway mediating stress-induced apoptosis. , 1997, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[161]  J. Hurwitz,et al.  Human RNA helicase A is homologous to the maleless protein of Drosophila. , 1993, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[162]  J. Krueger,et al.  The role of double-stranded RNA in induction of the acute-phase response in an abortive influenza virus infection model. , 1992, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[163]  B. Reinhart,et al.  The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans , 2000, Nature.

[164]  Ming-Bo Wang,et al.  Gene silencing as an adaptive defence against viruses , 2001, Nature.

[165]  R. Palmiter,et al.  Protamine 3'-untranslated sequences regulate temporal translational control and subcellular localization of growth hormone in spermatids of transgenic mice. , 1989, Genes & development.

[166]  R. Roeder,et al.  Xenopus 5S gene transcription factor, TFIIIA: Characterization of a cDNA clone and measurement of RNA levels throughout development , 1984, Cell.

[167]  B. Moss,et al.  Nuclear localization of a double-stranded RNA-binding protein encoded by the vaccinia virus E3L gene. , 1993, Virology.

[168]  C. Samuel,et al.  PACT, a double-stranded RNA binding protein acts as a positive regulator for type I interferon gene induced by Newcastle disease virus. , 2001, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[169]  M. Kiebler,et al.  The Mammalian Staufen Protein Localizes to the Somatodendritic Domain of Cultured Hippocampal Neurons: Implications for Its Involvement in mRNA Transport , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[170]  R. Emeson,et al.  Regulation of serotonin-2C receptor G-protein coupling by RNA editing , 1997, Nature.

[171]  M. Wigler,et al.  A gene from S. pombe with homology to E. coli RNAse III blocks conjugation and sporulation when overexpressed in wild type cells. , 1990, Nucleic acids research.

[172]  M. Jantsch,et al.  Comparative Mutational Analysis of the Double-stranded RNA Binding Domains of Xenopus laevis RNA-binding Protein A* , 1996, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[173]  B. Reinhart,et al.  MicroRNAs in plants. , 2002, Genes & development.

[174]  E. Moss,et al.  Non-coding RNAs: Lightning strikes twice , 2000, Current Biology.

[175]  M. Mann,et al.  miRNPs: a novel class of ribonucleoproteins containing numerous microRNAs. , 2002, Genes & development.

[176]  C. Méndez-Vidal,et al.  The p53-induced mouse zinc finger protein wig-1 binds double-stranded RNA with high affinity. , 2002, Nucleic acids research.

[177]  G. Peters,et al.  Modular Structure of PACT: Distinct Domains for Binding and Activating PKR , 2001, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[178]  D. Strayer,et al.  Mismatched double-stranded RNA, Ampligen (poly(I): poly(C12U), demonstrates antiviral and immunostimulatory activities in HIV disease. , 1991, International journal of immunopharmacology.

[179]  J. Langland,et al.  Double-stranded RNA is a trigger for apoptosis in vaccinia virus-infected cells , 1997, Journal of virology.

[180]  M. Wilm,et al.  Protein composition of human prespliceosomes isolated by a tobramycin affinity-selection method , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[181]  A. Hinnebusch,et al.  Structural requirements for double-stranded RNA binding, dimerization, and activation of the human eIF-2 alpha kinase DAI in Saccharomyces cerevisiae , 1995, Molecular and cellular biology.

[182]  R. Braun,et al.  Spermatid perinuclear ribonucleic acid-binding protein binds microtubules in vitro and associates with abnormal manchettes in vivo in mice. , 1998, Biology of reproduction.

[183]  E. De Clercq,et al.  Increased susceptibility of cells treated with interferon to the toxicity of polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid. , 1972, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[184]  T. Tuschl,et al.  Duplexes of 21-nucleotide RNAs mediate RNA interference in cultured mammalian cells , 2001, Nature.

[185]  M. Hagiwara,et al.  Dual Roles of RNA Helicase A in CREB-Dependent Transcription , 2001, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[186]  R. Braun,et al.  A testis cytoplasmic RNA-binding protein that has the properties of a translational repressor , 1996, Molecular and cellular biology.

[187]  M. Katze,et al.  Translational regulation by the interferon-induced double-stranded-RNA-activated 68-kDa protein kinase. , 1993, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[188]  S C Schultz,et al.  Molecular basis of double‐stranded RNA‐protein interactions: structure of a dsRNA‐binding domain complexed with dsRNA , 1998, The EMBO journal.

[189]  E. Paoletti,et al.  Distinct patterns of IFN sensitivity observed in cells infected with vaccinia K3L- and E3L- mutant viruses. , 1995, Virology.

[190]  A. Mayeda,et al.  Characterization of Two Evolutionarily Conserved, Alternatively Spliced Nuclear Phosphoproteins, NFAR-1 and -2, That Function in mRNA Processing and Interact with the Double-stranded RNA-dependent Protein Kinase, PKR* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[191]  R. Charrel,et al.  Comparative sequence analysis of American, European and Asian isolates of viruses in the genus Coltivirus. , 1998, The Journal of general virology.

[192]  Magdalena Zernicka-Goetz,et al.  Specific interference with gene function by double-stranded RNA in early mouse development , 2000, Nature Cell Biology.

[193]  J. Hershey,et al.  Stimulation of protein synthesis in COS cells transfected with variants of the alpha-subunit of initiation factor eIF-2. , 1992, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[194]  E. A. Havell,et al.  A role for tumor necrosis factor in poly(I:C)-induced hemorrhagic necrosis and T-cell-dependent regression of a murine sarcoma. , 1991, Journal of interferon research.

[195]  F. Sicheri,et al.  X-ray crystal structure and functional analysis of vaccinia virus K3L reveals molecular determinants for PKR subversion and substrate recognition. , 2002, Molecular cell.

[196]  G. Barber,et al.  The 90- and 110-kDa human NFAR proteins are translated from two differentially spliced mRNAs encoded on chromosome 19p13. , 2001, Genomics.

[197]  S. Nanduri,et al.  A dynamically tuned double‐stranded RNA binding mechanism for the activation of antiviral kinase PKR , 2000, The EMBO journal.

[198]  A. Fire,et al.  Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans , 1998, Nature.

[199]  P. Seeburg,et al.  RED2, a Brain-specific Member of the RNA-specific Adenosine Deaminase Family* , 1996, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[200]  D. Feldmeyer,et al.  Neurological dysfunctions in mice expressing different levels of the Q/R site–unedited AMPAR subunit GluR–B , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[201]  D. St Johnston,et al.  A conserved double-stranded RNA-binding domain. , 1992, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[202]  A Crane,et al.  THE SUBMERGENCE OF WESTERN EUROPE PRIOR TO THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD. , 1895, Science.

[203]  P. Seeburg,et al.  Q/R site editing in kainate receptor GluR5 and GluR6 pre-mRNAs requires distant intronic sequences. , 1996, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[204]  M J Clemens,et al.  The double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR: structure and function. , 1997, Journal of interferon & cytokine research : the official journal of the International Society for Interferon and Cytokine Research.

[205]  R. Braun,et al.  Spnr, a murine RNA-binding protein that is localized to cytoplasmic microtubules , 1995, The Journal of cell biology.

[206]  Brenda L. Bass,et al.  An unwinding activity that covalently modifies its double-stranded RNA substrate , 1988, Cell.

[207]  R. Carthew,et al.  Use of dsRNA-Mediated Genetic Interference to Demonstrate that frizzled and frizzled 2 Act in the Wingless Pathway , 1998, Cell.

[208]  C. Samuel,et al.  Human RNA-specific adenosine deaminase ADAR1 transcripts possess alternative exon 1 structures that initiate from different promoters, one constitutively active and the other interferon inducible. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[209]  P. Lengyel,et al.  Interferon action: two distinct pathways for inhibition of protein synthesis by double-stranded RNA. , 1978, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[210]  L. Miraglia,et al.  Human RNase III Is a 160-kDa Protein Involved in Preribosomal RNA Processing* , 2000, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[211]  W. Guo,et al.  DRBP76, a Double-stranded RNA-binding Nuclear Protein, Is Phosphorylated by the Interferon-induced Protein Kinase, PKR* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[212]  K. Nishikura,et al.  Requirement of the RNA editing deaminase ADAR1 gene for embryonic erythropoiesis. , 2000, Science.

[213]  M. Carmell,et al.  Posttranscriptional Gene Silencing in Plants , 2006 .

[214]  M. W. Taylor,et al.  Viruses as an aid to cancer therapy: regression of solid and ascites tumors in rodents after treatment with bovine enterovirus. , 1971, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[215]  Q. Wei,et al.  RNAi as Random Degradative PCR siRNA Primers Convert mRNA into dsRNAs that Are Degraded to Generate New siRNAs , 2001, Cell.

[216]  E. De Clercq,et al.  Specificity of interferon-induced enhancement of toxicity for double-stranded ribonucleic acids. , 1973, The Journal of general virology.

[217]  A. Kingsman,et al.  TRIP: a novel double stranded RNA binding protein which interacts with the leucine rich repeat of flightless I. , 1998, Nucleic acids research.

[218]  H. W. Chang,et al.  The E3L gene of vaccinia virus encodes an inhibitor of the interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase. , 1992, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[219]  C. Disteche,et al.  Cloning and characterization of the mouse Interleukin Enhancer Binding Factor 3 (Ilf3) homolog in a screen for RNA binding proteins , 1999, Mammalian Genome.

[220]  R. Braun,et al.  Distribution of Tenr, an RNA-binding protein, in a lattice-like network within the spermatid nucleus in the mouse. , 1995, Biology of reproduction.

[221]  M. Mann,et al.  A Functional Interaction between the Survival Motor Neuron Complex and RNA Polymerase II , 2001, The Journal of cell biology.

[222]  J. V. Van Etten,et al.  Analysis of 76 kb of the chlorella virus PBCV-1 330-kb genome: map positions 182 to 258. , 1996, Virology.

[223]  Daniel St Johnston,et al.  staufen, a gene required to localize maternal RNAs in the Drosophila egg , 1991, Cell.

[224]  B. S. Baker,et al.  The maleless protein associates with the X chromosome to regulate dosage compensation in drosophila , 1991, Cell.

[225]  O. Elroy-Stein,et al.  Recombinant vaccinia virus K3L gene product prevents activation of double-stranded RNA-dependent, initiation factor 2 alpha-specific protein kinase. , 1993, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[226]  N. Fedoroff,et al.  A Mutation in the Arabidopsis HYL1 Gene Encoding a dsRNA Binding Protein Affects Responses to Abscisic Acid, Auxin, and Cytokinin , 2000, Plant Cell.

[227]  Yong Liu,et al.  Editing of Glutamate Receptor Subunit B Pre-mRNA by Splice-site Variants of Interferon-inducible Double-stranded RNA-specific Adenosine Deaminase ADAR1* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[228]  C. Hume,et al.  A cDNA clone for a novel nuclear protein with DNA binding activity , 1992, Chromosoma.

[229]  V. Solovyev,et al.  A novel type of RNase III family proteins in eukaryotes. , 2000, Gene.

[230]  Rekha C. Patel,et al.  PACT, a Stress-modulated Cellular Activator of Interferon-induced Double-stranded RNA-activated Protein Kinase, PKR* , 2000, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[231]  K. Nishikura,et al.  Molecular cloning of cDNA for double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminase, a candidate enzyme for nuclear RNA editing. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[232]  Q. Al-Awqati,et al.  Kanadaptin Is a Protein That Interacts with the Kidney but Not the Erythroid Form of Band 3* , 1998, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[233]  E. Paoletti,et al.  Vaccinia virus-encoded elF-2α homolog abrogates the antiviral effect of interferon , 1991 .

[234]  Roger E Bumgarner,et al.  A Comprehensive View of Regulation of Gene Expression by Double-stranded RNA-mediated Cell Signaling* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[235]  M. Jantsch,et al.  The RNA-editing Enzyme ADAR1 Is Localized to the Nascent Ribonucleoprotein Matrix on Xenopus Lampbrush Chromosomes but Specifically Associates with an Atypical Loop , 1999, The Journal of cell biology.

[236]  B. Reinhart,et al.  Conservation of the sequence and temporal expression of let-7 heterochronic regulatory RNA , 2000, Nature.

[237]  J. Mattick,et al.  The evolution of controlled multitasked gene networks: the role of introns and other noncoding RNAs in the development of complex organisms. , 2001, Molecular biology and evolution.

[238]  P. Sharp,et al.  RNAi Double-Stranded RNA Directs the ATP-Dependent Cleavage of mRNA at 21 to 23 Nucleotide Intervals , 2000, Cell.

[239]  C. Samuel,et al.  Proteolytic cleavage of the reovirus sigma 3 protein results in enhanced double-stranded RNA-binding activity: identification of a repeated basic amino acid motif within the C-terminal binding region , 1992, Journal of virology.

[240]  A. Smith,et al.  Cloning and expression of cyclosporin A- and FK506-sensitive nuclear factor of activated T-cells: NF45 and NF90. , 1994, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[241]  R. Lehmann,et al.  Drosophila development: Homeodomains and translational control , 1996, Current Biology.

[242]  M. Billeter,et al.  Biased hypermutation of viral RNA genomes could be due to unwinding/modification of double-stranded RNA , 1989, Cell.

[243]  E. Paoletti,et al.  Vaccinia virus-encoded eIF-2 alpha homolog abrogates the antiviral effect of interferon. , 1991, Virology.

[244]  A. Fukamizu,et al.  A Role of RNA Helicase A in cis-Acting Transactivation Response Element-mediated Transcriptional Regulation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[245]  Julie Dawn Thompson,et al.  Detection of dsRNA-binding domains in RNA helicase A and Drosophila maleless: implications for monomeric RNA helicases , 1994, Nucleic Acids Res..

[246]  K. Jeang,et al.  Genetic mapping in human and mouse of the locus encoding TRBP, a protein that binds the TAR region of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). , 1995, Genomics.

[247]  R. Patient,et al.  The Maternal CCAAT Box Transcription Factor Which Controls GATA-2 Expression Is Novel and Developmentally Regulated and Contains a Double-Stranded-RNA-Binding Subunit , 1998, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[248]  G. Kneale,et al.  RNA‐dependent cytoplasmic anchoring of a transcription factor subunit during Xenopus development , 2000, The EMBO journal.

[249]  M. Karin,et al.  Nuclear export of NF90 is required for interleukin-2 mRNA stabilization. , 2002, Molecular cell.

[250]  C. Nüsslein-Volhard,et al.  Multiple steps in the localization of bicoid RNA to the anterior pole of the Drosophila oocyte. , 1989, Development.

[251]  I. Nabi,et al.  A Novel Murine Staufen Isoform Modulates the RNA Content of Staufen Complexes , 2000, Molecular and Cellular Biology.

[252]  M. Mathews,et al.  Interactions between double-stranded RNA regulators and the protein kinase DAI , 1992, Molecular and cellular biology.

[253]  V. Ambros,et al.  The lin-4 regulatory RNA controls developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans by blocking LIN-14 protein synthesis after the initiation of translation. , 1999, Developmental biology.

[254]  L. Schaade,et al.  Cloning and expression of the human single copy homologue of the mouse zinc finger protein zfr. , 2001, Gene.

[255]  R. Emeson,et al.  Serotonin-2C Receptor Pre-mRNA Editing in Rat Brain andin Vitro by Splice Site Variants of the Interferon-inducible Double-stranded RNA-specific Adenosine Deaminase ADAR1* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[256]  P. Roberts,et al.  Essential role for the dsRNA-dependent protein kinase PKR in innate immunity to viral infection. , 2000, Immunity.

[257]  M. Mathews,et al.  Functional characterization of the RNA-binding domain and motif of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase DAI (PKR). , 1995, Journal of molecular biology.

[258]  H. W. Chang,et al.  The E3L and K3L vaccinia virus gene products stimulate translation through inhibition of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase by different mechanisms , 1993, Journal of virology.

[259]  Gabriele Varani,et al.  RNA recognition by a Staufen double‐stranded RNA‐binding domain , 2000, The EMBO journal.

[260]  C. Baglioni,et al.  Structural requirements of double-stranded RNA for the activation of 2',5'-oligo(A) polymerase and protein kinase of interferon-treated HeLa cells. , 1979, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[261]  H. W. Chang,et al.  Identification of a conserved motif that is necessary for binding of the vaccinia virus E3L gene products to double-stranded RNA. , 1993, Virology.

[262]  B. Bass,et al.  Caenorhabditis elegans mRNAs that encode a protein similar to ADARs derive from an operon containing six genes. , 1999, Nucleic acids research.

[263]  P. Seeburg,et al.  Structural Requirements for RNA Editing in Glutamate Receptor Pre-mRNAs by Recombinant Double-stranded RNA Adenosine Deaminase (*) , 1996, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[264]  R. Sperling,et al.  RNA editing activity is associated with splicing factors in lnRNP particles: The nuclear pre-mRNA processing machinery , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[265]  S. B. Lee,et al.  The interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase induces apoptosis. , 1994, Virology.

[266]  M. Mathews,et al.  Two RNA-binding motifs in the double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase, DAI. , 1992, Genes & development.

[267]  K. Jeang,et al.  Oncogenic potential of TAR RNA binding protein TRBP and its regulatory interaction with RNA‐dependent protein kinase PKR , 1997, The EMBO journal.

[268]  H. Das,et al.  Protein Synthesis in Rabbit Reticulocytes , 1980 .

[269]  M. Hilleman,et al.  Inducers of interferon and host resistance. I. Double-stranded RNA from extracts of Penicillium funiculosum. , 1967, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[270]  S. B. Lee,et al.  The interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated human p68 protein kinase inhibits the replication of vaccinia virus. , 1993, Virology.

[271]  Y. Jan,et al.  Staufen: a common component of mRNA transport in oocytes and neurons? , 2000, Trends in cell biology.

[272]  B. Williams,et al.  Deficient cytokine signaling in mouse embryo fibroblasts with a targeted deletion in the PKR gene: role of IRF‐1 and NF‐κB , 1997, The EMBO journal.

[273]  W. Filipowicz,et al.  Specific interference with gene expression induced by long, double-stranded RNA in mouse embryonal teratocarcinoma cell lines , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[274]  C. Xiao,et al.  Signal- and importin-dependent nuclear targeting of the kidney anion exchanger 1-binding protein kanadaptin. , 2002, The Biochemical journal.

[275]  P. Seeburg,et al.  A standardized nomenclature for adenosine deaminases that act on RNA. , 1997, RNA.

[276]  M. Kuroda,et al.  The dosage compensation regulators MLE, MSL-1 and MSL-2 are interdependent since early embryogenesis in Drosophila , 1995, Mechanisms of Development.

[277]  J. Vilček,et al.  Mitogenic effect of double‐stranded RNA in human fibroblasts: Role of autogenous interferon , 1987, Journal of cellular physiology.