Sensitivity of salmonella YG5161 for detecting PAH‐associated mutagenicity in air particulate matter

The Salmonella/microsome assay is the most used assay for the evaluation of air particulate matter (PM) mutagenicity and a positive correlation between strain TA98 responses and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) levels in PM has been found. However, it seems that the major causes of PM mutagenicity in this assay are the nitro and oxy‐PAHs. Salmonella YG5161, a 30‐times more responsive strain to B[a]P has been developed. To verify if YG5161 strain was sufficiently sensitive to detect mutagenicity associated with B[a]P mutagenicity, PM samples were collected in Brazil and Sweden, extracted with toluene and tested in the Salmonella/microsome microsuspension assay. PAHs and B[a]P were determined and the extracts were tested with YG5161 and its parental strain TA1538. The extracts were also tested with YG1041 and its parental strain TA98. For sensitivity comparisons, we tested B[a]P and 1‐nitropyrene (1‐NP) using the same conditions. The minimal effective dose of B[a]P was 155 ng/plate for TA1538 and 7 ng/plate for YG5161. Although the maximum tested dose, 10 m3/plate containing 9 ng of B[a]P in the case of Brazilian sample, was sufficient to elicit a response in YG5161, mutagenicity was detected at a dose as low as 1 m3/plate (0.9 ng). This is probably caused by nitro‐compounds that have been shown to be even more potent than B[a]P for YG5161. It seems that the mutagenicity of B[a]P present in PM is not detectable even with the use of YG5161 unless more efficient separation to remove the nitro‐compounds from the PAH extract is performed. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 55:510–517, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

[1]  D. DeMarini,et al.  Association between mutation spectra and stable and unstable DNA adduct profiles in Salmonella for benzo[a]pyrene and dibenzo[a,l]pyrene. , 2011, Mutation research.

[2]  V. M. Vargas,et al.  Mutagenic activity of airborne particulate matter as an indicative measure of atmospheric pollution. , 2003, Mutation research.

[3]  Fábio Kummrow,et al.  Blue rayon-anchored technique/Salmonella microsome microsuspension assay as a tool to monitor for genotoxic polycyclic compounds in Santos estuary. , 2006, Mutation research.

[4]  J. Dewulf,et al.  Oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric particulate matter: Molecular characterization and occurrence , 2010 .

[5]  E. Zeiger,et al.  The Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay. , 2000, Mutation research.

[6]  M. Stiborová,et al.  Mutagenicity and DNA adduct formation of PAH, nitro-PAH, and oxy-PAH fractions of atmospheric particulate matter from São Paulo, Brazil. , 2008, Mutation research.

[7]  Fábio Kummrow,et al.  A preliminary characterization of the mutagenicity of atmospheric particulate matter collected during sugar cane harvesting using the Salmonella/microsome microsuspension assay , 2008, Environmental and molecular mutagenesis.

[8]  N. Kado,et al.  A simple modification of the Salmonella liquid-incubation assay. Increased sensitivity for detecting mutagens in human urine. , 1983, Mutation research.

[9]  Hitomi Suzuki,et al.  3-Nitrobenzanthrone, a Powerful Bacterial Mutagen and Suspected Human Carcinogen Found in Diesel Exhaust and Airborne Particulates , 1997 .

[10]  M. Bottai,et al.  Persistent activation of DNA damage signaling in response to complex mixtures of PAHs in air particulate matter. , 2013, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[11]  Miroslav Machala,et al.  Diagnostic Tools for Effect-Directed Analysis of Mutagens, AhR Agonists, and Endocrine Disruptors , 2011 .

[12]  I. Kooter,et al.  Bioassay‐directed fractionation and sub‐fractionation for mutagenicity and chemical analysis of diesel exhaust particles , 2013, Environmental and molecular mutagenesis.

[13]  L. Claxton,et al.  A review of the mutagenicity and rodent carcinogenicity of ambient air. , 2007, Mutation research.

[14]  P. Siskos,et al.  Determination of mutagenic activity of airborne particulates and of the benzo[α]pyrene concentrations in Athens atmosphere , 1990 .

[15]  Takahiro Kobayashi,et al.  Bioassay-directed fractionation and salmonella mutagenicity of automobile and forklift diesel exhaust particles. , 2003, Environmental health perspectives.

[16]  J. C. Larsen,et al.  City air pollution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other mutagens: occurrence, sources and health effects. , 1996, The Science of the total environment.

[17]  M. Yamada,et al.  New tester strains of Salmonella typhimurium lacking O6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferases and highly sensitive to mutagenic alkylating agents. , 1997, Mutation research.

[18]  J. Lewtas,et al.  Cytotoxicity and effect on mutagenicity of buffers in a microsuspension assay. , 1989, Teratogenesis, carcinogenesis, and mutagenesis.

[19]  Andrew Williams,et al.  Genetic toxicology and toxicogenomic analysis of three cigarette smoke condensates in vitro reveals few differences among full-flavor, blonde, and light products , 2012, Environmental and molecular mutagenesis.

[20]  C. D. Alonso,et al.  Mutagenicity of airborne particulate organic material from urban and industrial areas of São Paulo, Brazil. , 1995, Mutation research.

[21]  M. Yamada,et al.  Specificity of replicative and SOS-inducible DNA polymerases in frameshift mutagenesis: mutability of Salmonella typhimurium strains overexpressing SOS-inducible DNA polymerases to 30 chemical mutagens. , 2006, DNA repair.

[22]  T. Sofuni,et al.  Specificity and sensitivity of Salmonella typhimurium YG1041 and YG1042 strains possessing elevated levels of both nitroreductase and acetyltransferase activity. , 1993, Mutation research.

[23]  G. Umbuzeiro,et al.  Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derivatives and mutagenicitys study in extracts of PM10 collected in São Paulo, Brazil , 2010 .

[24]  L. Claxton,et al.  The genotoxicity of ambient outdoor air, a review: Salmonella mutagenicity. , 2004, Mutation research.

[25]  K. C. T. de Brito,et al.  Comparative genotoxicity of airborne particulate matter (PM2.5) using Salmonella, plants and mammalian cells. , 2013, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[26]  B. Ames,et al.  Revised methods for the Salmonella mutagenicity test. , 1983, Mutation research.

[27]  H. Suzuki,et al.  An unusual DNA adduct derived from the powerfully mutagenic environmental contaminant 3-nitrobenzanthrone. , 1998, Chemical research in toxicology.

[28]  Larry D. Claxton,et al.  The Salmonella Mutagenicity Assay: The Stethoscope of Genetic Toxicology for the 21st Century , 2010, Environmental health perspectives.

[29]  J. Kaldor,et al.  An empirical approach to the statistical analysis of mutagenesis data from the Salmonella test. , 1982, Mutation research.

[30]  Roger Westerholm,et al.  Particulate associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exhaust emissions from a portable power generator fueled with three different fuels – A comparison between petroleum diesel and two biodiesels , 2014 .

[31]  K. Srogi.  Monitoring of environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a review , 2007, Environmental chemistry letters.

[32]  C. Bergvall,et al.  Determination of 252–302 Da and tentative identification of 316–376 Da polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Standard Reference Materials 1649a Urban Dust and 1650b and 2975 Diesel Particulate Matter by accelerated solvent extraction–HPLC-GC-MS , 2008, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[33]  U. Vogel,et al.  Genotoxicity, inflammation and physico-chemical properties of fine particle samples from an incineration energy plant and urban air. , 2007, Mutation research.

[34]  A. Haugen,et al.  Importance of CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 in bioactivation of benzo[a]pyrene in human lung cell lines. , 2010, Toxicology letters.

[35]  Rebecca M. Maertens,et al.  The genotoxicity of mainstream and sidestream marijuana and tobacco smoke condensates. , 2009, Chemical research in toxicology.