Distribution patterns of brominated, chlorinated, and phosphorus flame retardants with particle size in indoor and outdoor dust and implications for human exposure.

Dust samples were collected in Beijing, China, from four different indoor microenvironments (office, hotel, kindergarten, and student dormitory) and one outdoor (road dust) microenvironment. These five composite samples were fractionated into 13 sequential size fractions and an individual fraction of <50 μm for further analysis. In the fractions of <50 μm, nine phosphorus flame retardants (∑PFRs), four novel brominated flame retardants (∑NBFRs), and two Dechlorane Plus isomers (DPs) showed the highest concentrations in hotel dust (124,000 ng g(-1)), dormitory dust (14,200 ng g(-1)), and kindergarten dust (231 ng g(-1)), respectively. Nevertheless, nine polybrominated diphenyl ethers (∑PBDEs) were the dominant flame retardants (FRs) (96% of total FRs) in road dust, with the maximum concentration of 23,700 ng g(-1), higher than in any indoor dust. The FR contamination varied strongly among different types of microenvironments, leading to high human exposure to various FRs. Concentrations of FRs did not increase constantly with a particle size decrease. Fractions with a particle size around 900, 100, and 10 μm could represent peak values, while valley values were commonly detected around fractions with a particle size around 40 μm. Large differences were found between indoor dust and road dust. In road dust, FRs were mainly enriched in fractions of <50 μm. The organic content of dust, FR application, and consequent abrasion processes of FR-containing materials might be the determinants of the FR concentrations. Volatilization and abrasion were considered to be important migration pathways for FRs. DPs and BDE-209 were sought to be mainly applied in abrasion-proof materials, while most phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) were probably added in a large proportion in materials easy to wear.

[1]  S. Tanabe,et al.  Organophosphorus flame retardants in house dust from the Philippines: occurrence and assessment of human exposure , 2013, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[2]  N. Van den Eede,et al.  Country specific comparison for profile of chlorinated, brominated and phosphate organic contaminants in indoor dust. Case study for Eastern Romania, 2010. , 2012, Environment international.

[3]  Gang Yu,et al.  Mechanisms influencing the BFR distribution patterns in office dust and implications for estimating human exposure. , 2013, Journal of hazardous materials.

[4]  K. Jones,et al.  Estimation of the production, consumption, and atmospheric emissions of pentabrominated diphenyl ether in Europe between 1970 and 2000. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[5]  A. Lagalante,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels in dust from previously owned automobiles at United States dealerships. , 2009, Environment international.

[6]  Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah,et al.  Identifying transfer mechanisms and sources of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209) in indoor environments using environmental forensic microscopy. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[7]  T. Salthammer,et al.  Chamber studies on mass-transfer of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) from emission sources into house dust , 2010 .

[8]  Jacek Namieśnik,et al.  PBDEs in environmental samples: sampling and analysis. , 2012, Talanta.

[9]  K. Betts.  A new flame retardant in the air. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[10]  Adrian Covaci,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in domestic indoor dust from Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States. , 2008, Environment international.

[11]  E. Stephanou,et al.  Particle-size distribution and gas/particle partitioning of atmospheric polybrominated diphenyl ethers in urban areas of Greece. , 2009, Environmental pollution.

[12]  Shin-ichi Sakai,et al.  Flame retardants in indoor dust and air of a hotel in Japan. , 2009, Environment international.

[13]  J. Meeker,et al.  Detection of organophosphate flame retardants in furniture foam and U.S. house dust. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[14]  R. G. Lewis,et al.  Distribution of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in house dust as a function of particle size. , 1999, Environmental health perspectives.

[15]  Heather M. Stapleton,et al.  Exposure to PBDEs in the Office Environment: Evaluating the Relationships Between Dust, Handwipes, and Serum , 2011, Environmental health perspectives.

[16]  Charles Q. Yang,et al.  Flame retardant finishing of cotton fleece fabric: Part V. Phosphorus‐containing maleic acid oligomers , 2009 .

[17]  P. Leonards,et al.  Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) and plasticizers in house and car dust and the influence of electronic equipment. , 2014, Chemosphere.

[18]  N. Van den Eede,et al.  Assessment of human exposure to indoor organic contaminants via dust ingestion in Pakistan. , 2012, Indoor air.

[19]  Bin Zhao,et al.  Analysis of the Dynamic Interaction Between SVOCs and Airborne Particles , 2013 .

[20]  H. Neels,et al.  "Novel" brominated flame retardants in Belgian and UK indoor dust: implications for human exposure. , 2011, Chemosphere.

[21]  Byeong-Kyu Lee,et al.  Toxicity and source assignment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in road dust from urban residential and industrial areas in a typical industrial city in Korea , 2011 .

[22]  Olivier Thomas,et al.  Organic contamination of settled house dust, a review for exposure assessment purposes. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[23]  Weiping Liu,et al.  Particle size-specific distributions and preliminary exposure assessments of organophosphate flame retardants in office air particulate matter. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[24]  B. Heinzow,et al.  Pollutants in house dust as indicators of indoor contamination. , 2002, Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[25]  H. Stapleton,et al.  Serum PBDEs in a North Carolina Toddler Cohort: Associations with Handwipes, House Dust, and Socioeconomic Variables , 2012, Environmental health perspectives.

[26]  S. Harrad,et al.  PASSIVE AIR SAMPLING SURVEY OF POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHER IN PRIVATE CARS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOURCES AND HUMAN EXPOSURE , 2010 .

[27]  N. Van den Eede,et al.  Multi-residue method for the determination of brominated and organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust. , 2012, Talanta.

[28]  O. Jann,et al.  Emissions of organophosphate and brominated flame retardants from selected consumer products and building materials , 2003 .

[29]  A. Covaci,et al.  Novel brominated flame retardants: a review of their analysis, environmental fate and behaviour. , 2011, Environment international.

[30]  Xiaojun Luo,et al.  Dechlorane Plus in house dust from E‐waste recycling and urban areas in South China: Sources, degradation, and human exposure , 2011, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[31]  Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah,et al.  Concentrations of brominated flame retardants in dust from United Kingdom cars, homes, and offices: causes of variability and implications for human exposure. , 2008, Environment international.

[32]  Yi-Fan Li,et al.  Dechlorane plus and related compounds in the environment: a review. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[33]  Gang Yu,et al.  Particle size: a missing factor in risk assessment of human exposure to toxic chemicals in settled indoor dust. , 2012, Environment international.

[34]  Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah,et al.  Indoor contamination with hexabromocyclododecanes, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and perfluoroalkyl compounds: an important exposure pathway for people? , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[35]  R. Cela,et al.  Microwave-assisted extraction of organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers from indoor dust samples. , 2007, Journal of chromatography. A.

[36]  C. D. de Wit,et al.  Brominated flame retardants in the Arctic environment--trends and new candidates. , 2010, The Science of the total environment.

[37]  R. Harrison,et al.  Use of a versatile high efficiency multiparallel denuder for the sampling of PAHs in ambient air: gas and particle phase concentrations, particle size distribution and artifact formation. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[38]  Heather M. Stapleton,et al.  Alternate and new brominated flame retardants detected in U.S. house dust. , 2008 .

[39]  M. Ruby,et al.  Selective soil particle adherence to hands: implications for understanding oral exposure to soil contaminants. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[40]  J. Hajšlová,et al.  Occurrence of brominated flame retardants in household and car dust from the Czech Republic. , 2012, The Science of the total environment.

[41]  S. Dorevitch,et al.  Particle size fractionation and human exposure of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor dust from Chicago , 2009, Journal of environmental science and health. Part A, Toxic/hazardous substances & environmental engineering.

[42]  N. Van den Eede,et al.  Analytical developments and preliminary assessment of human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants from indoor dust. , 2011, Environment international.

[43]  J. Douwes,et al.  Occurrence of alternative flame retardants in indoor dust from New Zealand: indoor sources and human exposure assessment. , 2012, Chemosphere.

[44]  S. Sakai,et al.  Existence state of bromine as an indicator of the source of brominated flame retardants in indoor dust. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[45]  J. Boer,et al.  Phosphorus flame retardants: Properties, production, environmental occurrence, toxicity and analysis , 2012 .

[46]  Edward D. Weil,et al.  Flame Retardants in Commercial Use or Development for Textiles , 2009 .

[47]  Wanguang Li,et al.  Aerosol Evaporation in the Transition Regime , 1996 .

[48]  J. de Boer,et al.  Phosphorus flame retardants: properties, production, environmental occurrence, toxicity and analysis. , 2012, Chemosphere.

[49]  Chunrong Jia,et al.  Concentrations and emissions of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from U.S. houses and garages. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[50]  Hong-Sheng Wang,et al.  Risk assessment of bioaccessible organochlorine pesticides exposure via indoor and outdoor dust , 2013 .

[51]  C. Samara,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the indoor and outdoor environments--a review on occurrence and human exposure. , 2012, Environmental pollution.

[52]  A. Covaci,et al.  Differences in the seasonal variation of brominated and phosphorus flame retardants in office dust. , 2014, Environment international.

[53]  M. Wong,et al.  Exposure assessment and distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) contained in indoor and outdoor dusts and the impacts of particle size and bioaccessibility. , 2013, The Science of the total environment.

[54]  H. Neels,et al.  Levels and profiles of organochlorines and flame retardants in car and house dust from Kuwait and Pakistan: implication for human exposure via dust ingestion. , 2013, Environment international.