Models of recognition: A review of arguments in favor of a dual-process account

The majority of computationally specified models of recognition memory have been based on a single-process interpretation, claiming that familiarity is the only influence on recognition. There is increasing evidence that recognition is, in fact, based on two processes: recollection and familiarity. This article reviews the current state of the evidence for dual-process models, including the usefulness of the remember/know paradigm, and interprets the relevant results in terms of the source of activation confusion (SAC) model of memory. We argue that the evidence from each of the areas we discuss, when combined, presents a strong case that inclusion of a recollection process is necessary. Given this conclusion, we also argue that the dual-process claim that the recollection process is always available is, in fact, more parsimonious than the single-process claim that the recollection process is used only in certain paradigms. The value of a well-specified process model such as the SAC model is discussed with regard to other types of dual-process models.

[1]  Riccardo Russo,et al.  One process is not enough! A speed-accuracy tradeoff study of recognition memory , 2004, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[2]  M Glanzer,et al.  The mirror effect in recognition memory , 1984, Memory & cognition.

[3]  R L Greene,et al.  Mirror effect in frequency discrimination. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[4]  Christina M. Frederick,et al.  Recognition memory for source and occurrence: The importance of recollection , 2002, Memory & cognition.

[5]  Barbara Anne Dosher,et al.  Judgments of semantic and episodic relatedness: Common time-course and failure of segregation , 1991 .

[6]  R. Shiffrin,et al.  A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. , 1984, Psychological review.

[7]  Rachel A. Diana,et al.  The list strength effect: A contextual competition account , 2005, Memory & cognition.

[8]  John T Wixted,et al.  On the nature of the decision axis in signal-detection-based models of recognition memory. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[9]  Tim Curran,et al.  Retrieval dynamics of recognition and frequency judgments: Evidence for separate processes of familiarity and recall. , 1994 .

[10]  Robert W. Proctor,et al.  Study-phase processing and the word frequency effect in recognition memory. , 1984 .

[11]  David A. Balota,et al.  Lexical , Sublexical , and Implicit Memory Processes in Healthy Young and Healthy Older Adults and in Individuals With Dementia of the Alzheimer Type , 2004 .

[12]  Barbara L. Chalfonte,et al.  Sum-Difference Theory of Remembering and Knowing : A Two-Dimensional Signal-Detection Model By : , 2004 .

[13]  E. Hirshman,et al.  Discriminating alternative conceptions of false recognition: The cases of word concreteness and word frequency. , 1997 .

[14]  J. Gardiner,et al.  Repetition of previously novel melodies sometimes increases both remember and know responses in recognition memory , 1996, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[15]  Gregory V. Jones.  Independence and Exclusivity Among Psychological Processes: Implications for the Structure of Recall. , 1987 .

[16]  A. Yonelinas.  Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory: evidence for a dual-process model. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[17]  John M. Gardiner,et al.  Recognition memory and awareness: A large effect of study-test modalities on "know" responses following a highly perceptual orienting task , 1994 .

[18]  Lynne M Reder,et al.  Perceptual match effects in direct tests of memory: The role of contextual fan , 2002, Memory & cognition.

[19]  David A. Balota,et al.  The Word-Frequency Mirror Effect in Young, Old, and Early-Stage Alzheimer's Disease: Evidence for Two Processes in Episodic Recognition Performance , 2002 .

[20]  Michael D. Rugg,et al.  Event-related potentials and the recollection of low and high frequency words , 1995, Neuropsychologia.

[21]  J. Gardiner.  Functional aspects of recollective experience , 1988, Memory & cognition.

[22]  James L. McClelland,et al.  Familiarity breeds differentiation: a subjective-likelihood approach to the effects of experience in recognition memory. , 1998, Psychological review.

[23]  Y. Hoshino.  A bias in favor of the positive response to high-frequency words in recognition memory , 1991, Memory & cognition.

[24]  David A. Caulton,et al.  Retrieval dynamics in recognition and list discrimination: Further evidence of separate processes of familiarity and recall , 1998, Memory & cognition.

[25]  Lynne M Reder,et al.  Word frequency and receiver operating characteristic curves in recognition memory: evidence for a dual-process interpretation. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[26]  Douglas L. Hintzman,et al.  Judgments of frequency and recognition memory in a multiple-trace memory model. , 1988 .

[27]  David A. Balota,et al.  Lexical, Sublexical, and Implicit Memory Processes in Healthy Young and Healthy Older Adults and in Individuals With Dementia of the Alzheimer Type , 1996 .

[28]  J. Wixted,et al.  On the difference between strength-based and frequency-based mirror effects in recognition memory. , 1998, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[29]  L. Jacoby.  A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory , 1991 .

[30]  L. Reder,et al.  The effects of word frequency and similarity on recognition judgments: the role of recollection. , 2005, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[31]  Richard M. Shiffrin,et al.  Cuing effects and associative information in recognition memory , 1992, Memory & cognition.

[32]  W. Hockley,et al.  Recollection and familiarity through the looking glass: when old does not mirror new. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[33]  M. Glanzer,et al.  Analysis of the word-frequency effect in recognition memory , 1976 .

[34]  G. Mandler.  Recognizing: The judgment of previous occurrence. , 1980 .

[35]  L. Reder,et al.  A dual-process account of the list-length and strength-based mirror effects in recognition , 2003 .

[36]  R. Shiffrin,et al.  A model for recognition memory: REM—retrieving effectively from memory , 1997, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[37]  William E. Hockley,et al.  Familiarity and recollection in item and associative recognition , 1999, Memory & cognition.

[38]  W. Donaldson,et al.  The role of decision processes in remembering and knowing , 1996, Memory & cognition.

[39]  B. Murdock.  A Theory for the Storage and Retrieval of Item and Associative Information. , 1982 .

[40]  E. Hirshman,et al.  Midazolam amnesia and dual-process models of the word-frequency mirror effect , 2002 .

[41]  C. Lebiere,et al.  An integrated theory of list memory. , 1998 .

[42]  E. Tulving.  Memory and consciousness. , 1985 .

[43]  Felicia A. Huppert,et al.  The Role of Trace Strength in Recency and Frequency Judgements by Amnesic and Control Subjects , 1978, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[44]  John R. Anderson.  Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory , 1974 .

[45]  Richard M Shiffrin,et al.  List discrimination in associative recognition and implications for representation. , 2005, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[46]  T. Curran,et al.  Using ERPs to dissociate recollection from familiarity in picture recognition. , 2003, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[47]  G. Hitch,et al.  Cognitive effort and recollective experience in recognition memory. , 1999, Memory.

[48]  Tim Curran,et al.  Retrieval constraints and the mirror effect , 1994 .

[49]  Barbara Anne Dosher,et al.  Degree of learning and retrieval speed: Study time and multiple exposures. , 1984 .

[50]  Richard M Shiffrin,et al.  Interactions between study task, study time, and the low-frequency hit rate advantage in recognition memory. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[51]  R. Ratcliff,et al.  Time course of item and associative information: implications for global memory models. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[52]  Simon Dennis,et al.  ERP ‘old/new’ effects: memory strength and decisional factor(s) , 2002, Neuropsychologia.

[53]  M. Rugg,et al.  Human recognition memory: a cognitive neuroscience perspective , 2003, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[54]  E. Heit,et al.  Associative Recognition: a Case of Recall-to-reject Processing , 2022 .

[55]  C. Lebiere,et al.  The Atomic Components of Thought , 1998 .

[56]  Kenneth J. Malmberg,et al.  Modeling the effects of repetitions, similarity, and normative word frequency on old-new recognition and judgments of frequency. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[57]  W. Donaldson,et al.  A comparison of recollective memory and source monitoring , 1996, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[58]  T. Curran.  Brain potentials of recollection and familiarity , 2000, Memory & cognition.

[59]  M. Rugg,et al.  Recognition memory for new associations: electrophysiological evidence for the role of recollection , 1998, Neuropsychologia.

[60]  J. Dunn.  Remember-know: a matter of confidence. , 2004, Psychological review.

[61]  William E. Hockley,et al.  Tests of the separate retrieval of item and associative information using a frequency-judgment task , 1996, Memory & cognition.

[62]  A. Richardson-Klavehn,et al.  Remembering and knowing , 2000 .

[63]  H. Kucera,et al.  Computational analysis of present-day American English , 1967 .

[64]  John T Wixted,et al.  In defense of the signal detection interpretation of remember/know judgments , 2004, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[65]  M. Rugg,et al.  Event-related potential studies of associative recognition and recall: electrophysiological evidence for context dependent retrieval processes. , 1999, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[66]  E. Hirshman,et al.  Modeling the conscious correlates of recognition memory: Reflections on the remember-know paradigm , 1997, Memory & cognition.

[67]  A. Gorman.  Recognition memory for nouns as a function of abstractness and frequency. , 1961, Journal of experimental psychology.

[68]  William E. Hockley,et al.  Reflections of the mirror effect for item and associative recognition , 1994, Memory & cognition.

[69]  J. Gardiner,et al.  Recollective experience in word and nonword recognition , 1990, Memory & cognition.

[70]  R. Shiffrin,et al.  Turning up the noise or turning down the volume? On the nature of the impairment of episodic recognition memory by midazolam. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[71]  A. Yonelinas.  The Nature of Recollection and Familiarity: A Review of 30 Years of Research , 2002 .

[72]  David A. Caulton,et al.  Recognition Memory and Modality Judgments: A Comparison of Retrieval Dynamics , 1997 .

[73]  G. Mandler,et al.  Retrieval processes in recognition , 1974, Memory & cognition.

[74]  K Lamberts,et al.  A feature-sampling account of the time course of old-new recognition judgments. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[75]  K. Norman.  Differential effects of list strength on recollection and familiarity. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[76]  Lynne M. Reder,et al.  The role of spurious feature familiarity in recognition memory , 2004, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[77]  A. Richardson-Klavehn,et al.  Maintenance rehearsal affects knowing, not remembering; elaborative rehearsal affects remembering, not knowing , 1994, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[78]  J G Snodgrass,et al.  Episodic priming and memory for temporal source: event-related potentials reveal age-related differences in prefrontal functioning. , 1999, Psychology and aging.

[79]  V. Gregg,et al.  Components of conscious awareness in a long-term modality effect , 1991 .

[80]  L. Reder,et al.  A mechanistic account of the mirror effect for word frequency: a computational model of remember-know judgments in a continuous recognition paradigm. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[81]  L L Jacoby,et al.  Isolating the contributions of familiarity and source information to item recognition: a time course analysis. , 1999, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[82]  Philip J. Stroffolino,et al.  To calculate or not to calculate: A source activation confusion model of problem familiarity's role in strategy selection , 1997 .

[83]  L. Jacoby,et al.  The Relation between Remembering and Knowing as Bases for Recognition: Effects of Size Congruency , 1995 .

[84]  Andrew Heathcote,et al.  Item recognition memory and the receiver operating characteristic. , 2003, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[85]  Roger Ratcliff,et al.  Retrieval Processes in Recognition Memory , 1976 .

[86]  M. Conway,et al.  Pictures, images, and recollective experience. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[87]  J. Gardiner,et al.  Forgetting in recognition memory with and without recollective experience , 1991, Memory & cognition.

[88]  Suparna Rajaram,et al.  Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past , 1993, Memory & cognition.

[89]  S. Rajaram.  The effects of conceptual salience and perceptual distinctiveness on conscious recollection , 1998 .

[90]  Philip M. Merikle,et al.  Independence or redundancy? Two models of conscious and unconscious influences , 1993 .