A comprehensive review on recently developed carbon based nanocomposites for capacitive deionization: From theory to practice

Abstract A comprehensive review through few decades of capacitive deionization (CDI) ever since discovery of Carbon aerogel, including a brief theory and factors influencing along with detailed focus on various electrode materials explored till now is done. The importance of suitable pore structure, high surface area, good wettability, high conductivity and quantitatively adsorb ionic components are discussed for optimal desalination performance. Specifically, porous carbon bassed materials are extensively explored as electrode materials in CDI setup, attributable to their availability, low cost and stability. This review mainly discusses the current state of the art in carbon based materials for enhanced desalination performance. Also, in this review, various carbon-based composite electrode materials, including porous carbon, porous carbon–metal oxide, carbon–polymer and carbon–polymer–metal oxide nanocomposites, are systematically investigated. Moreover, a brief outlook on the challenges and new research directions in the CDI area is also presented for researchers toward designing the high performance carbon based CDI device.

[1]  Joseph C. Farmer,et al.  Desalination with carbon aerogel electrodes , 1996 .

[2]  Yong Liu,et al.  Review on carbon-based composite materials for capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[3]  Ashutosh Sharma,et al.  Carbon aerogels through organo-inorganic co-assembly and their application in water desalination by capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[4]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Membrane capacitive deionization , 2010 .

[5]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Three-dimensional micro/mesoporous carbon composites with carbon nanotube networks for capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[6]  B. Jiang,et al.  Optimization of the operational parameters for desalination with response surface methodology during a capacitive deionization process , 2014 .

[7]  Chi-Woo Lee,et al.  Desalination of a thermal power plant wastewater by membrane capacitive deionization , 2006 .

[8]  W. Changming,et al.  Parameter optimization based on capacitive deionization for highly efficient desalination of domestic wastewater biotreated effluent and the fouled electrode regeneration , 2015 .

[9]  N. Gospodinova,et al.  Conducting polymers prepared by oxidative polymerization: polyaniline , 1998 .

[10]  Volker Presser,et al.  Review on the science and technology of water desalination by capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[11]  Yong Liu,et al.  Reduced graphene oxide and activated carbon composites for capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[12]  J. Rodríguez-Mirasol,et al.  High-performance activated carbon from polyaniline for capacitive deionization , 2017 .

[13]  K. Y. Foo,et al.  A short review of activated carbon assisted electrosorption process: an overview, current stage and future prospects. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[14]  Khalil Abdelrazek Khalil,et al.  TiO2 nanorod-intercalated reduced graphene oxide as high performance electrode material for membrane capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[15]  V. Bagotsky,et al.  Fundamentals of Electrochemistry: Bagotsky/Fundamentals of Electrochemistry, Second Edition , 2005 .

[16]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Water desalination using capacitive deionization with microporous carbon electrodes. , 2012, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[17]  Gang Wang,et al.  Enhancing capacitive deionization performance of electrospun activated carbon nanofibers by coupling with carbon nanotubes. , 2015, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[18]  Volker Presser,et al.  Carbon flow electrodes for continuous operation of capacitive deionization and capacitive mixing energy generation , 2014 .

[19]  Xueliang Li,et al.  Design and fabrication of a graphene/carbon nanotubes/activated carbon hybrid and its application for capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[20]  Yong Liu,et al.  Ultrahigh Desalinization Performance of Asymmetric Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization Device with an Improved Operation Voltage of 1.8 V , 2017 .

[21]  H. Lei,et al.  Graphene-like carbon nanosheets prepared by a Fe-catalyzed glucose-blowing method for capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[22]  F. Kang,et al.  Capacitive deionization of NaCl solutions using carbon nanotube sponge electrodes , 2011 .

[23]  B. Conway,et al.  Investigation of removal of Cr(VI), Mo(VI), W(VI), V(IV), and V(V) oxy-ions from industrial waste-waters by adsorption and electrosorption at high-area carbon cloth. , 2002, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[24]  Tingting Yan,et al.  Comparative Electroadsorption Study of Mesoporous Carbon Electrodes with Various Pore Structures , 2011 .

[25]  S. Bhattacharjee,et al.  Electrokinetic and Colloid Transport Phenomena , 2006 .

[26]  H. N. Singh,et al.  Present status of solar distillation , 2003 .

[27]  Marc A. Anderson,et al.  Capacitive deionization as an electrochemical means of saving energy and delivering clean water. Comparison to present desalination practices: Will it compete? , 2010 .

[28]  D. Chapman,et al.  LI. A contribution to the theory of electrocapillarity , 1913 .

[29]  Linda Zou,et al.  Using activated carbon electrode in electrosorptive deionisation of brackish water , 2008 .

[30]  Hamouda M. Mousa,et al.  Enhanced desalination performance of capacitive deionization using zirconium oxide nanoparticles-doped graphene oxide as a novel and effective electrode , 2016 .

[31]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Ion-selective asymmetric carbon electrodes for enhanced capacitive deionization , 2018, RSC advances.

[32]  R. Pekala,et al.  Aerogels derived from multifunctional organic monomers , 1992 .

[33]  Chia-Hung Hou,et al.  A comparative study of electrosorption selectivity of ions by activated carbon electrodes in capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[34]  Ming Zhou,et al.  Controlled synthesis of large-area and patterned electrochemically reduced graphene oxide films. , 2009, Chemistry.

[35]  Zhuo Sun,et al.  Novel nitrogen doped graphene sponge with ultrahigh capacitive deionization performance , 2015, Scientific Reports.

[36]  Ayokunle Omosebi,et al.  Voltage-Based Stabilization of Microporous Carbon Electrodes for Inverted Capacitive Deionization , 2018 .

[37]  Feiyu Kang,et al.  Carbon electrodes for capacitive deionization , 2017 .

[38]  Yoshiyuki Show,et al.  Electric double layer capacitor with low series resistance fabricated by carbon nanotube addition , 2007 .

[39]  Choonsoo Kim,et al.  Hybrid capacitive deionization to enhance the desalination performance of capacitive techniques , 2014 .

[40]  D. A. Brownson,et al.  The electrochemistry of CVD graphene: progress and prospects. , 2012, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[41]  Ayokunle Omosebi,et al.  Asymmetric electrode configuration for enhanced membrane capacitive deionization. , 2014, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[42]  J. Lee,et al.  PROGRESS IN PREPARATION, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS OF POLYANILINE , 2009 .

[43]  Pierre-Louis Taberna,et al.  Desolvation of ions in subnanometer pores and its effect on capacitance and double-layer theory. , 2008, Angewandte Chemie.

[44]  Qiang Zhang,et al.  Macroporous 'bubble' graphene film via template-directed ordered-assembly for high rate supercapacitors. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[45]  D. Mangalaraj,et al.  Solvent-free mechanochemical synthesis of graphene oxide and Fe3O4–reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites for sensitive detection of nitrite , 2015 .

[46]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Improvement of desalination efficiency in capacitive deionization using a carbon electrode coated with an ion-exchange polymer. , 2010, Water research.

[47]  Liyi Shi,et al.  High capacity and high rate capability of nitrogen-doped porous hollow carbon spheres for capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[48]  Costas Tsouris,et al.  Electrosorption of ions from aqueous solutions by nanostructured carbon aerogel. , 2002, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[49]  Juan G. Santiago,et al.  Capacitive desalination with flow-through electrodes , 2012 .

[50]  Lei Cheng,et al.  Surface modification of coconut-based activated carbon by liquid-phase oxidation and its effects on lead ion adsorption , 2010 .

[51]  Moon Hee Han,et al.  Desalination via a new membrane capacitive deionization process utilizing flow-electrodes , 2013 .

[52]  G. Owens,et al.  Effects of copper, lead, and cadmium on the sorption and desorption of atrazine onto and from carbon nanotubes. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[53]  Xiaodong Wang,et al.  Nanocellulose-derived highly porous carbon aerogels for supercapacitors , 2016 .

[54]  Walter Den,et al.  Application of a multiwalled carbon nanotube-chitosan composite as an electrode in the electrosorption process for water purification. , 2016, Chemosphere.

[55]  Costas Tsouris,et al.  Electrosorption capacitance of nanostructured carbon aerogel obtained by cyclic voltammetry , 2003 .

[56]  K. Jüttner,et al.  EQCM study of the ion exchange behaviour of polypyrrole with different counterions in different electrolytes , 2005 .

[57]  Yang Hu,et al.  Fabrication of Graphene-Based Xerogels for Removal of Heavy Metal Ions and Capacitive Deionization , 2015 .

[58]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Nitrogen-doped porous carbon derived from a bimetallic metal–organic framework as highly efficient electrodes for flow-through deionization capacitors , 2016 .

[59]  Y. Oren,et al.  Capacitive deionization (CDI) for desalination and water treatment — past, present and future (a review) , 2008 .

[60]  Chen-Chi M. Ma,et al.  Microwave-assisted ionothermal synthesis of nanostructured anatase titanium dioxide/activated carbon composite as electrode material for capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[61]  Liwen Zhang,et al.  Optimization on electrode assemblies based on ion-doped polypyrrole/carbon nanotube composite in capacitive deionization process , 2016 .

[62]  Nidal Hilal,et al.  Application of Capacitive Deionisation in water desalination: A review , 2014 .

[63]  V. Presser,et al.  Improved capacitive deionization performance of mixed hydrophobic/hydrophilic activated carbon electrodes , 2016, Journal of physics. Condensed matter : an Institute of Physics journal.

[64]  Zhuo Sun,et al.  A comparative study on electrosorptive behavior of carbon nanotubes and graphene for capacitive deionization , 2011 .

[65]  Juergen Biener,et al.  Advanced carbon aerogels for energy applications , 2011 .

[66]  Xiaodong Chen,et al.  Assembly of graphene sheets into 3D macroscopic structures. , 2012, Small.

[67]  Gang Wang,et al.  Activated carbon nanofiber webs made by electrospinning for capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[68]  C. Ania,et al.  Stability of a carbon gel electrode when used for the electro-assisted removal of ions from brackish water , 2011 .

[69]  Kelsey B. Hatzell,et al.  Capacitive deionization concept based on suspension electrodes without ion exchange membranes , 2014 .

[70]  Yan Wang,et al.  Optimization of the voltage window for long-term capacitive deionization stability , 2017 .

[71]  Y. Yamauchi,et al.  High performance capacitive deionization electrodes based on ultrathin nitrogen-doped carbon/graphene nano-sandwiches. , 2017, Chemical communications.

[72]  Y. Tong,et al.  Single-crystal ZnO nanorod/amorphous and nanoporous metal oxide shell composites: Controllable electrochemical synthesis and enhanced supercapacitor performances , 2011 .

[73]  B. Hameed,et al.  Recent developments in the preparation and regeneration of activated carbons by microwaves. , 2009, Advances in colloid and interface science.

[74]  Wei Yan,et al.  Application of chemically synthesized polypyrrole with hydro-sponge characteristic as electrode in water desalination† , 2015 .

[75]  Tingting Yan,et al.  Separation and recovery of heavy metal ions and salt ions from wastewater by 3D graphene-based asymmetric electrodes via capacitive deionization , 2017 .

[76]  S. Kovač,et al.  Polymer-dimer distribution in the electrochemical synthesis of polyaniline , 1995 .

[77]  Linda Zou,et al.  Development of novel MnO2/nanoporous carbon composite electrodes in capacitive deionization technology , 2011 .

[78]  Hongrui Peng,et al.  Synthesis and electrochemical performance of sandwich-like polyaniline/graphene composite nanosheets , 2012 .

[79]  J. Jang,et al.  Fabrication and characterization of polyaniline coated carbon nanofiber for supercapacitor , 2005 .

[80]  Toraj Mohammadi,et al.  Sea water desalination using electrodialysis , 2008 .

[81]  Linda Zou,et al.  A study of the capacitive deionisation performance under various operational conditions. , 2012, Journal of hazardous materials.

[82]  Doron Aurbach,et al.  Long term stability of capacitive de-ionization processes for water desalination: The challenge of positive electrodes corrosion , 2013 .

[83]  T. Arnot,et al.  A review of reverse osmosis membrane materials for desalinationDevelopment to date and future poten , 2011 .

[84]  Zhuo Sun,et al.  Electrophoretic deposition of carbon nanotubes–polyacrylic acid composite film electrode for capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[85]  R. Ruoff,et al.  Graphene-based ultracapacitors. , 2008, Nano letters.

[86]  Tie Gao,et al.  Heterostructured graphene@Na4Ti9O20 nanotubes for asymmetrical capacitive deionization with ultrahigh desalination capacity , 2018, Chemical Engineering Journal.

[87]  A. Balamurugan,et al.  Edge-carboxylated graphene anchoring magnetite-hydroxyapatite nanocomposite for an efficient 4-nitrophenol sensor , 2015 .

[88]  Nasser A.M. Barakat,et al.  ZrO2 nanofibers/activated carbon composite as a novel and effective electrode material for the enhancement of capacitive deionization performance , 2017 .

[89]  A. Kornyshev,et al.  F ¨ Ur Mathematik in Den Naturwissenschaften Leipzig towards Understanding the Structure and Capacitance of Electrical Double Layer in Ionic Liquids towards Understanding the Structure and Capacitance of Electrical Double Layer in Ionic Liquids , 2022 .

[90]  Won Il Cho,et al.  Capacitive deionization of NaCl solution with carbon aerogel-silicagel composite electrodes , 2005 .

[91]  Noreddine Ghaffour,et al.  The challenge of capacity-building strategies and perspectives for desalination for sustainable water use in MENA , 2009 .

[92]  Maneesh Kumar Singh,et al.  Enhanced salt-adsorption capacity of ambient pressure dried carbon aerogel activated by CO2 for capacitive deionization application , 2015 .

[93]  Lu Lu,et al.  Resin-enhanced rolling activated carbon electrode for efficient capacitive deionization , 2017 .

[94]  F. Béguin,et al.  Effect of binder on the performance of carbon/carbon symmetric capacitors in salt aqueous electrolyte , 2014 .

[95]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Energy consumption and constant current operation in membrane capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[96]  Hong Liu,et al.  Hierarchical porous carbon aerogel derived from bagasse for high performance supercapacitor electrode. , 2014, Nanoscale.

[97]  G. Wang,et al.  Calcined MgAl-Layered Double Hydroxide/Graphene Hybrids for Capacitive Deionization , 2018 .

[98]  T. Li,et al.  Carbon electrode modified by KOH solution to improve performance of capacitive desalination , 2016 .

[99]  Wangwang Tang,et al.  Development of Redox-Active Flow Electrodes for High-Performance Capacitive Deionization. , 2016, Environmental science & technology.

[100]  N. Karatepe,et al.  Sulfur dioxide adsorption by activated carbons having different textural and chemical properties , 2008 .

[101]  Linda Zou,et al.  Graphene/Polyaniline nanocomposite as electrode material for membrane capacitive deionization. , 2014 .

[102]  Chia-Hung Hou,et al.  Improved performance in capacitive deionization of activated carbon electrodes with a tunable mesopore and micropore ratio. , 2015 .

[103]  T. D. Tran,et al.  Electrosorption of inorganic salts from aqueous solution using carbon aerogels. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[104]  D. Aurbach,et al.  The Rate-Determining Step of Electroadsorption Processes into Nanoporous Carbon Electrodes Related to Water Desalination , 2009 .

[105]  Linda Zou,et al.  Polyaniline-modified activated carbon electrodes for capacitive deionisation , 2014 .

[106]  Chaoyang Wang,et al.  Facile fabrication of graphene–polypyrrole–Mn composites as high-performance electrodes for capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[107]  Xiaowei Sun,et al.  Kinetic and isotherm studies on the electrosorption of NaCl from aqueous solutions by activated carbon electrodes , 2011 .

[108]  Peng Liang,et al.  Enhancement of salt removal in capacitive deionization cell through periodically alternated oxidation of electrodes , 2018 .

[109]  Khalil Abdelrazek Khalil,et al.  Hollow carbon nanofibers as an effective electrode for brackish water desalination using the capacitive deionization process , 2014 .

[110]  Bruce Dunn,et al.  Carbon aerogels for electrochemical applications , 1998 .

[111]  Xingbin Yan,et al.  Fabrication of carbon nanofiber-polyaniline composite flexible paper for supercapacitor. , 2011, Nanoscale.

[112]  Zheng Ling,et al.  Sulfonated Graphene as Cation‐Selective Coating: A New Strategy for High‐Performance Membrane Capacitive Deionization , 2015 .

[113]  Kang-Ho Lee,et al.  Capacitive deionization characteristics of nanostructured carbon aerogel electrodes synthesized via ambient drying , 2007 .

[114]  F. Luan,et al.  Self-doped polyaniline on functionalized carbon cloth as electroactive materials for supercapacitor , 2012 .

[115]  F. Béguin,et al.  Carbon materials for the electrochemical storage of energy in capacitors , 2001 .

[116]  Jun Chen,et al.  A Leavening Strategy to Prepare Reduced Graphene Oxide Foams , 2012, Advanced materials.

[117]  Joseph C. Farmer,et al.  Capacitive Deionization of NaCl and NaNO3 Solutions with Carbon Aerogel Electrodes , 1996 .

[118]  G. Zeng,et al.  Graphene-based materials: fabrication, characterization and application for the decontamination of wastewater and wastegas and hydrogen storage/generation. , 2013, Advances in colloid and interface science.

[119]  Zhuo. Sun,et al.  Metal-organic framework-derived porous carbon polyhedra for highly efficient capacitive deionization. , 2015, Chemical communications.

[120]  Norio Shinya,et al.  Polyaniline-Coated Electro-Etched Carbon Fiber Cloth Electrodes for Supercapacitors , 2011 .

[121]  I. Shiklomanov.  Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources , 2000 .

[122]  Y. W. Chen,et al.  Electrosorption of NaCl Solutions with Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofibers Composite Film Electrodes , 2006 .

[123]  W. Nakbanpote,et al.  Preparation of CO2 activated carbon from corncob for monoethylene glycol adsorption , 2009 .

[124]  H. Fan,et al.  Three-dimensional graphene and their integrated electrodes , 2014 .

[125]  Hisham Ettouney,et al.  Multi-stage flash desalination: present and future outlook , 1999 .

[126]  Yue Wu,et al.  Temperature-Induced Hydrophobic-Hydrophilic Transition Observed by Water Adsorption , 2008, Science.

[127]  Wei Liu,et al.  Preparation and electrosorption desalination performance of activated carbon electrode with titania , 2011 .

[128]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Improved capacitive deionization of sulfonated carbon/titania hybrid electrode , 2018 .

[129]  Yu-Hsuan Liu,et al.  Electrodeposited Manganese Dioxide/Activated Carbon Composite As a High-Performance Electrode Material for Capacitive Deionization , 2016 .

[130]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Time-dependent ion selectivity in capacitive charging of porous electrodes. , 2012, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[131]  J. J. Pis,et al.  Tailoring the textural properties of activated carbon xerogels by chemical activation with KOH , 2008 .

[132]  Ruey-an Doong,et al.  Hierarchically ordered mesoporous carbons and silver nanoparticles as asymmetric electrodes for highly efficient capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[133]  Shih‐Yuan Lu,et al.  Dispersing WO3 in carbon aerogel makes an outstanding supercapacitor electrode material , 2014 .

[134]  M. Erdem,et al.  Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from grape stalk by zinc chloride activation , 2014 .

[135]  Yu Fu,et al.  Highly Stable Hybrid Capacitive Deionization with a MnO2 Anode and a Positively Charged Cathode , 2018 .

[136]  S. Nguyen,et al.  Graphene oxide, highly reduced graphene oxide, and graphene: versatile building blocks for carbon-based materials. , 2010, Small.

[137]  L. Zou,et al.  Using capacitive deionisation for inland brackish groundwater desalination in a remote location , 2013 .

[138]  Laurent Pilon,et al.  Recent Advances in Continuum Modeling of Interfacial and Transport Phenomena in Electric Double Layer Capacitors , 2015, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[139]  Volker Presser,et al.  Water desalination via capacitive deionization : What is it and what can we expect from it? , 2015 .

[140]  Linda Zou,et al.  Kinetics and thermodynamics study for electrosorption of NaCl onto carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers electrodes , 2010 .

[141]  Abdul Latif Ahmad,et al.  ADSORPTION OF BASIC DYE USING ACTIVATED CARBON PREPARED FROM OIL PALM SHELL: BATCH AND FIXED BED STUDIES , 2008 .

[142]  Nigel M. Sammes,et al.  Novel carbon aerogel-supported catalysts for PEM fuel cell application , 2005 .

[143]  R. Pekala,et al.  New organic aerogels based upon a phenolic-furfural reaction☆ , 1995 .

[144]  M. Elimelech,et al.  Environmental applications of carbon-based nanomaterials. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[145]  J. Jung,et al.  Relationships between pore size and charge transfer resistance of carbon aerogels for organic electric double-layer capacitor electrodes , 2017 .

[146]  Huaihe Song,et al.  Effect of compounding process on the structure and electrochemical properties of ordered mesoporous carbon/polyaniline composites as electrodes for supercapacitors , 2009 .

[147]  N. Pesika,et al.  Carbon microspheres as network nodes in a novel biocompatible gel , 2011 .

[148]  Wangwang Tang,et al.  Faradaic reactions in capacitive deionization (CDI) - problems and possibilities: A review. , 2018, Water research.

[149]  Tingting Yan,et al.  Three-dimensional macroporous graphene architectures as high performance electrodes for capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[150]  D. Zhao,et al.  Syntheses of polyaniline/ordered mesoporous carbon composites with interpenetrating framework and th , 2011 .

[151]  Fan Zhang,et al.  Porous 3D graphene-based bulk materials with exceptional high surface area and excellent conductivity for supercapacitors , 2013, Scientific Reports.

[152]  A. Chetouani,et al.  Production and characterisation of activated carbon from wood components in powder: Cellulose, lignin, xylan , 2005 .

[153]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Electrode reactions and adsorption/desorption performance related to the applied potential in a capacitive deionization process , 2010 .

[154]  M. Zoromba,et al.  Electrochemical Activation of Graphene at Low Temperature: The Synthesis of Three-Dimensional Nanoarchitectures for High Performance Supercapacitors and Capacitive Deionization , 2017 .

[155]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Enhanced capacitive deionization of graphene/mesoporous carbon composites. , 2012, Nanoscale.

[156]  Seung-Hyeon Moon,et al.  Investigation on removal of hardness ions by capacitive deionization (CDI) for water softening applications. , 2010, Water research.

[157]  Weichuan Qiao,et al.  Fabrication of graphene/activated carbon nanofiber composites for high performance capacitive deionization , 2017 .

[158]  Linda Zou,et al.  Single-walled carbon nanotubes and polyaniline composites for capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[159]  Walter A. Zeltner,et al.  Synthesis and characterization of asymmetric electrochemical capacitive deionization materials using nanoporous silicon dioxide and magnesium doped aluminum oxide , 2009 .

[160]  Hong-Joo Lee,et al.  Designing of an electrodialysis desalination plant , 2002 .

[161]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Fabrication and characterization of a porous carbon electrode for desalination of brackish water , 2009 .

[162]  C. Erkey,et al.  Preparation of Platinum/Carbon Aerogel Nanocomposites Using a Supercritical Deposition Method , 2004 .

[163]  F. Wei,et al.  Moderately oxidized graphene–carbon nanotubes hybrid for high performance capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[164]  Haibo Li,et al.  Mesoporous carbon derived from ZIF-8 for high efficient electrosorption , 2017, Desalination.

[165]  Manojkumar Kadam,et al.  Use of mesoporous conductive carbon black to enhance performance of activated carbon electrodes in capacitive deionization technology , 2011 .

[166]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Fabrication of a carbon electrode using activated carbon powder and application to the capacitive deionization process , 2010 .

[167]  Shaoxian Song,et al.  Desalination by capacitive deionization process using nitric acid-modified activated carbon as the electrodes , 2014 .

[168]  J. Tirado,et al.  Mn-Containing N-Doped Monolithic Carbon Aerogels with Enhanced Macroporosity as Electrodes for Capacitive Deionization , 2016 .

[169]  H. Hatori,et al.  Structural changes in carbon aerogels with high temperature treatment , 2002 .

[170]  Joydeep Dutta,et al.  Brackish water desalination by capacitive deionization using zinc oxide micro/nanostructures grafted on activated carbon cloth electrodes , 2014 .

[171]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Graphene prepared via a novel pyridine–thermal strategy for capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[172]  A. Ahmad,et al.  Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from oil palm wood and its evaluation on Methylene blue adsorption , 2007 .

[173]  V. Presser,et al.  Two-Dimensional Molybdenum Carbide (MXene) with Divacancy Ordering for Brackish and Seawater Desalination via Cation and Anion Intercalation , 2018 .

[174]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Optimization of salt adsorption rate in membrane capacitive deionization. , 2013, Water research.

[175]  D. Fairen-jimenez,et al.  Porosity and surface area of monolithic carbon aerogels prepared using alkaline carbonates and organic acids as polymerization catalysts , 2006 .

[176]  K. Jüttner,et al.  Continuous ion exchange process based on polypyrrole as an electrochemically switchable ion exchanger , 2005 .

[177]  Joseph C. Farmer,et al.  The use of capacitive deionization with carbon aerogel electrodes to remove inorganic contaminants from water , 1995 .

[178]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Complementary surface charge for enhanced capacitive deionization. , 2016, Water research.

[179]  Zhuo Sun,et al.  Electrosorption behavior of graphene in NaCl solutions , 2009 .

[180]  T. Baumann,et al.  High surface area carbon aerogel monoliths with hierarchical porosity , 2008 .

[181]  Xiuyun Sun,et al.  Nitrogen-Doped Hollow Mesoporous Carbon Spheres for Efficient Water Desalination by Capacitive Deionization , 2017 .

[182]  Joydeep Dutta,et al.  Fabrication of zinc oxide nanorods modified activated carbon cloth electrode for desalination of brackish water using capacitive deionization approach , 2012 .

[183]  A. Tokuhiro,et al.  Radiolytic synthesis of polyaniline nanofibers: A new templateless pathway , 2005 .

[184]  Ayokunle Omosebi,et al.  Enhanced Salt Removal in an Inverted Capacitive Deionization Cell Using Amine Modified Microporous Carbon Cathodes. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[185]  Jung-Hoon Song,et al.  Removal of hardness ions from tap water using electromembrane processes , 2007 .

[186]  Chia-Hung Hou,et al.  Incorporating Manganese Dioxide in Carbon Nanotube–Chitosan as a Pseudocapacitive Composite Electrode for High-Performance Desalination , 2017 .

[187]  Xin Gao,et al.  Surface charge enhanced carbon electrodes for stable and efficient capacitive deionization using inverted adsorption–desorption behavior , 2015 .

[188]  Linda Zou,et al.  Ordered mesoporous carbons synthesized by a modified sol-gel process for electrosorptive removal of sodium chloride , 2009 .

[189]  Michelle V. Buchanan,et al.  Basic Research Needs for Electrical Energy Storage. Report of the Basic Energy Sciences Workshop on Electrical Energy Storage, April 2-4, 2007 , 2007 .

[190]  Lijun He,et al.  An insight into the improved capacitive deionization performance of activated carbon treated by sulfuric acid , 2015 .

[191]  Zhuo Sun,et al.  Electrosorptive desalination by carbon nanotubes and nanofibres electrodes and ion-exchange membranes. , 2008, Water research.

[192]  B. Tay,et al.  Carbon nanotube–ZnO nanocomposite electrodes for supercapacitors , 2009 .

[193]  D. Aurbach,et al.  The Dependence of the Desalination Performance in Capacitive Deionization Processes on the Electrodes PZC , 2011 .

[194]  Linda Zou,et al.  Using mesoporous carbon electrodes for brackish water desalination. , 2008, Water research.

[195]  S. Sahu,et al.  Electrochemical Desalination of Seawater and Hypersaline Brines with Coupled Electricity Storage , 2018 .

[196]  J. Tirado,et al.  N-doped monolithic carbon aerogel electrodes with optimized features for the electrosorption of ions , 2015 .

[197]  Khalil Abdelrazek Khalil,et al.  Graphene/SnO2 nanocomposite as an effective electrode material for saline water desalination using capacitive deionization , 2014 .

[198]  J. Bockris,et al.  Electrodics in Chemistry, Engineering, Biology, and Environmental Science , 2000 .

[199]  Y. Liu,et al.  Enhanced capacitive deionization performance of graphene by nitrogen doping. , 2015, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[200]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Improvement in the capacitance of a carbon electrode prepared using water-soluble polymer binder for a capacitive deionization application , 2010 .

[201]  B. Conway.  Electrochemical Supercapacitors: Scientific Fundamentals and Technological Applications , 1999 .

[202]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Preparation and desalination performance of multiwall carbon nanotubes , 2006 .

[203]  Nasser A.M. Barakat,et al.  Graphene wrapped MnO2-nanostructures as effective and stable electrode materials for capacitive deionization desalination technology , 2014 .

[204]  F. Rodríguez-Reinoso,et al.  Preparation of activated carbon by chemical activation with ZnCl2 , 1991 .

[205]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Grafting sulfonic and amine functional groups on 3D graphene for improved capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[206]  Wei Zhang,et al.  Preparation and Application of Electrodes in Capacitive Deionization (CDI): a State-of-Art Review , 2016, Nanoscale Research Letters.

[207]  Shichang Xu,et al.  Polypyrrole/polyaniline composites with enhanced performance for capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[208]  Choonsoo Kim,et al.  TiO2 sol–gel spray method for carbon electrode fabrication to enhance desalination efficiency of capacitive deionization , 2014 .

[209]  Zhengping Hao,et al.  Effective desalination by capacitive deionization with functional graphene nanocomposite as novel electrode material , 2012 .

[210]  Liyi Shi,et al.  High performance ordered mesoporous carbon/carbon nanotube composite electrodes for capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[211]  Yong Liu,et al.  Hierarchical hybrids with microporous carbon spheres decorated three-dimensional graphene frameworks for capacitive applications in supercapacitor and deionization , 2016 .

[212]  Gang Wang,et al.  Asymmetric capacitive deionization utilizing nitric acid treated activated carbon fiber as the cathode , 2015 .

[213]  O. Bertrand,et al.  Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from date stones by physical activation with steam , 2008 .

[214]  Ting Lu,et al.  Metal–organic framework-engaged formation of a hierarchical hybrid with carbon nanotube inserted porous carbon polyhedra for highly efficient capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[215]  Roberto Borsani,et al.  Fundamentals and costing of MSF desalination plants and comparison with other technologies , 2005 .

[216]  M. Gouy,et al.  Sur la constitution de la charge électrique à la surface d'un électrolyte , 1910 .

[217]  Jixiao Wang,et al.  Electrode configuration optimization of capacitive deionization cells based on zero charge potential of the electrodes , 2017 .

[218]  D. Aurbach,et al.  Several basic and practical aspects related to electrochemical deionization of water , 2009 .

[219]  Xin Gao,et al.  Dependence of the Capacitive Deionization Performance on Potential of Zero Charge Shifting of Carbon Xerogel Electrodes during Long-Term Operation , 2014 .

[220]  F. J. Maldonado-Hódar,et al.  Carbon aerogels for catalysis applications: An overview , 2005 .

[221]  Karel J. Keesman,et al.  Direct prediction of the desalination performance of porous carbon electrodes for capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[222]  Zhiyong Tang,et al.  Three‐Dimensional Graphene/Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Hybrids for High‐Performance Capacitive Deionization of Saline Water , 2013, Advanced materials.

[223]  H. Helmholtz.  Ueber einige Gesetze der Vertheilung elektrischer Ströme in körperlichen Leitern mit Anwendung auf die thierisch‐elektrischen Versuche , 1853 .

[224]  Shichang Xu,et al.  Polypyrrole/carbon nanotube composites as cathode material for performance enhancing of capacitive deionization technology , 2014 .

[225]  Y. Liu,et al.  Nitrogen-doped electrospun reduced graphene oxide–carbon nanofiber composite for capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[226]  Gang Wang,et al.  Electrospun Composites Made of Reduced Graphene Oxide and Activated Carbon Nanofibers for Capacitive Deionization , 2014 .

[227]  Linda Zou,et al.  Novel graphene-like electrodes for capacitive deionization. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[228]  Peng Liang,et al.  Coupling ion-exchangers with inexpensive activated carbon fiber electrodes to enhance the performance of capacitive deionization cells for domestic wastewater desalination. , 2013, Water research.

[229]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Enhanced capacitive deionization performance of graphene/carbon nanotube composites , 2012 .

[230]  Zhou Shi,et al.  Enhanced electrosorption capacity for lead ion removal with polypyrrole and air‐plasma activated carbon nanotube composite electrode , 2015 .

[231]  Ting Lu,et al.  Carbon spheres with hierarchical micro/mesopores for water desalination by capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[232]  J. Tirado,et al.  Mesoporous carbon black-aerogel composites with optimized properties for the electro-assisted removal of sodium chloride from brackish water , 2015 .

[233]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Rapid construction of 3D foam-like carbon nanoarchitectures via a simple photochemical strategy for capacitive deionization , 2017 .

[234]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Enhanced desalination efficiency in capacitive deionization with an ion-selective membrane , 2010 .

[235]  Nathalie Job,et al.  Porous carbon xerogels with texture tailored by pH control during sol–gel process , 2004 .

[236]  Pei Xu,et al.  Treatment of brackish produced water using carbon aerogel-based capacitive deionization technology. , 2008, Water research.

[237]  K. László,et al.  Influence of drying on the morphology of resorcinol–formaldehyde-based carbon gels , 2005 .

[238]  Chaoyang Wang,et al.  Fabrication of mesoporous graphene electrodes with enhanced capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[239]  Hua Zhang,et al.  Ultrahigh Performance of Novel Capacitive Deionization Electrodes based on A Three-Dimensional Graphene Architecture with Nanopores , 2016, Scientific Reports.

[240]  Gang Wang,et al.  Surface-treated carbon electrodes with modified potential of zero charge for capacitive deionization. , 2016, Water research.

[241]  J. Tirado,et al.  A novel method for metal oxide deposition on carbon aerogels with potential application in capacitive deionization of saline water , 2014 .

[242]  Ke-ning Sun,et al.  Sponge‐Templated Preparation of High Surface Area Graphene with Ultrahigh Capacitive Deionization Performance , 2014 .

[243]  L. Zou,et al.  Reduced graphene oxide/polyaniline conductive anion exchange membranes in capacitive deionisation process , 2015 .

[244]  Alexei A Kornyshev,et al.  Double-layer in ionic liquids: paradigm change? , 2007, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[245]  G. Bharath,et al.  Development of adsorption and electrosorption techniques for removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from wastewater using novel magnetite/porous graphene-based nanocomposites , 2017 .

[246]  Jun Fujii,et al.  Graphene synthesis on cubic SiC/Si wafers. perspectives for mass production of graphene-based electronic devices. , 2010, Nano letters.

[247]  Xavier Py,et al.  Contributions of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin to the mass and the porous properties of chars and steam activated carbons from various lignocellulosic precursors. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[248]  Moon Hee Han,et al.  Surface-modified spherical activated carbon for high carbon loading and its desalting performance in flow-electrode capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[249]  Shichang Xu,et al.  Polypyrrole nanowire modified graphite (PPy/G) electrode used in capacitive deionization , 2010 .

[250]  Linda Zou,et al.  Using graphene nano-flakes as electrodes to remove ferric ions by capacitive deionization , 2010 .

[251]  Jun Zhang,et al.  Hydrothermally synthesized graphene and Fe3O4 nanocomposites for high performance capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[252]  Volker Presser,et al.  Titanium Disulfide: A Promising Low-Dimensional Electrode Material for Sodium Ion Intercalation for Seawater Desalination , 2017 .

[253]  Dong Young Kim,et al.  Carbon nanofibre/hydrous RuO2 nanocomposite electrodes for supercapacitors , 2007 .

[254]  Jong-Ho Kim,et al.  Role of titania incorporated on activated carbon cloth for capacitive deionization of NaCl solution. , 2003, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[255]  L. Pan,et al.  Carbon aerogels electrode with reduced graphene oxide additive for capacitive deionization with enhanced performance , 2014 .

[256]  John Newman,et al.  Desalting by Means of Porous Carbon Electrodes , 1971 .

[257]  Justin C. Lytle,et al.  Multifunctional 3D nanoarchitectures for energy storage and conversion. , 2009, Chemical Society reviews.

[258]  Lianjun Wang,et al.  A protic salt-derived porous carbon for efficient capacitive deionization: Balance between porous structure and chemical composition , 2017 .

[259]  H. Teng,et al.  Preparation of activated carbon from bituminous coal with phosphoric acid activation , 1998 .

[260]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Improvement of capacitive deionization performance via using a Tiron-grafted TiO2 nanoparticle layer on porous carbon electrode , 2017, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering.

[261]  Yonghong Deng,et al.  Fabrication of Anion-Exchange Polymer Layered Graphene–Melamine Electrodes for Membrane Capacitive Deionization , 2017 .

[262]  Liyi Shi,et al.  Influence of carbonization of hot-pressed carbon nanotube electrodes on removal of NaCl from saltwater solution , 2006 .

[263]  Zhuo. Sun,et al.  Electrosorption of different cations and anions with membrane capacitive deionization based on carbon nanotube/nanofiber electrodes and ion-exchange membranes , 2011 .

[264]  L. Zou,et al.  Carbon nanotube/graphene composite for enhanced capacitive deionization performance , 2013 .

[265]  Wenhao Yang,et al.  Enhanced capacitive deionization of lead ions using air-plasma treated carbon nanotube electrode , 2014 .

[266]  Dazhi Wang,et al.  Equilibrium and kinetic studies on the removal of NaCl from aqueous solutions by electrosorption on carbon nanotube electrodes , 2007 .

[267]  Sotira Yiacoumi,et al.  Electrosorption of ions from aqueous solutions by carbon aerogel: An electrical double-layer model , 2001 .

[268]  W. Daud,et al.  Review of modifications of activated carbon for enhancing contaminant uptakes from aqueous solutions , 2007 .

[269]  A. Dutta,et al.  Production of activated carbon from coconut shell: optimization using response surface methodology. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[270]  Marek Bryjak,et al.  Effect of electrode thickness variation on operation of capacitive deionization , 2012 .

[271]  Chi-Woo Lee,et al.  Development of a carbon sheet electrode for electrosorption desalination , 2007 .

[272]  J. Rouzaud,et al.  Carbon aerogels, cryogels and xerogels: Influence of the drying method on the textural properties of porous carbon materials , 2005 .