Widespread Detection of Antibodies to Eastern Equine Encephalitis, West Nile, St. Louis Encephalitis, and Turlock Viruses in Various Species of Wild Birds from Across the United States.

Wild birds serve as amplifying hosts for many arboviruses, and are thought to be responsible for introducing these viruses into new areas during migration as well as reintroducing them to places where winter temperatures disrupt mosquito-borne transmission. To learn more about four mosquito-borne arboviruses of concern to human or animal health, we tested sera from 997 wild birds of 54 species and 17 families across 44 states of the United States collected from January 1, 2013, through September 30, 2013. Samples were tested for antibody against eastern equine encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile, and Turlock viruses using plaque reduction neutralization tests with an endpoint of 80% or greater. Of the 333 (33.4%) birds that tested positive for antibody to at least one arbovirus, 29.7% were exposed to two or more arboviruses. Exposure to all four arboviruses was detected in Canada geese, double-crested cormorants, mallards, mute swans, laughing gulls, and American coots. Our results suggest that exposure to arboviruses is widespread in the United States across a diversity of wild bird species.

[1]  Shinichi Nakagawa,et al.  House sparrows , 2016, Current Biology.

[2]  S. Hills,et al.  Concurrent Outbreaks of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus and West Nile Virus Disease - Arizona, 2015. , 2015, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[3]  E. Wang,et al.  Short report: Antibody prevalence of select arboviruses in mute swans (Cygnus olor) in the Great Lakes region and Atlantic coast of the United States. , 2014, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[4]  J. Roehrig.  West Nile Virus in the United States — A Historical Perspective , 2013, Viruses.

[5]  Michael C. Thomas,et al.  Vector-host interactions and epizootiology of eastern equine encephalitis virus in Massachusetts. , 2013, Vector borne and zoonotic diseases.

[6]  V. O’Brien,et al.  Are Wild Birds Important in the Transport of Arthropod-borne Viruses? , 2011 .

[7]  R. Bowen,et al.  Serosurveillance for Japanese Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses in Resident Birds in Hawai‘i , 2010, Journal of wildlife diseases.

[8]  K. Huyvaert,et al.  EXPERIMENTAL INOCULATION OF HOUSE SPARROWS (PASSER DOMESTICUS) WITH BUGGY CREEK VIRUS , 2008, Journal of wildlife diseases.

[9]  R. Mclean,et al.  Arboviruses in Birds , 2008 .

[10]  A. Ellis,et al.  West Nile Virus Antibody Prevalence in American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and Fish Crows (Corvus ossifragus) in Georgia, U.S.A. , 2007 .

[11]  D. Stallknecht,et al.  West Nile virus antibodies in avian species of Georgia, USA: 2000-2004. , 2006, Vector borne and zoonotic diseases.

[12]  R. Tesh,et al.  Variation in Interferon Sensitivity and Induction among Strains of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus , 2005, Journal of Virology.

[13]  C. Caffrey,et al.  WEST NILE VIRUS DEVASTATES AN AMERICAN CROW POPULATION , 2005 .

[14]  R. Novak,et al.  Antibody Prevalence of West Nile Virus in Birds, Illinois, 2002 , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[15]  P. Daszak,et al.  Quantitative Risk Assessment of the Pathways by Which West Nile Virus Could Reach Hawaii , 2004, EcoHealth.

[16]  R. Novak,et al.  West Nile Virus and High Death Rate in American Crows , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[17]  S. Langevin,et al.  Experimental Infection of North American Birds with the New York 1999 Strain of West Nile Virus , 2003, Emerging infectious diseases.

[18]  L. Kramer,et al.  Eastern Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus Infection in a Horse from California , 2002, Emerging infectious diseases.

[19]  L. Sileo,et al.  West Nile Virus Transmission and Ecology in Birds , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[20]  George W. Cox,et al.  Alien species in North America and Hawaii : impacts on natural ecosystems , 2000 .

[21]  Michael W. Parker,et al.  Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. , 1999, Science.

[22]  A. Brault,et al.  Genetic and antigenic diversity among eastern equine encephalitis viruses from North, Central, and South America. , 1999, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[23]  C. Calisher.  Medically important arboviruses of the United States and Canada , 1994, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[24]  T. Scott,et al.  Molecular evolution of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in North America. , 1991, Virology.

[25]  T. Tsai.  Arboviral infections in the United States. , 1991, Infectious disease clinics of North America.

[26]  E. Lennette,et al.  Diagnostic Procedures for Viral, Rickettsial and Chlamydial Infections , 1989 .

[27]  T. Scott,et al.  EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS OF BIRDS WITH TURLOCK VIRUS , 1983, Journal of wildlife diseases.

[28]  K. Hudec,et al.  Serologic examination of birds from the area of southern Moravia for the presence of antibodies against arboviruses of the groups Alfa, Flavo, Uukuniemi, Turlock and Bunyamwera supergroup. II. Wild living birds. , 1976, Folia parasitologica.

[29]  R. O. Hayes,et al.  House sparrows, Passer domesticus (L.), as hosts of arboviruses in Hale County, Texas. I. Field studies, 1965-1969. , 1973, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[30]  P. S. Humphrey,et al.  The epidemiology of EEE WEE, SLE and Turlock viruses, with special reference to birds, in a tropical rain forest near Belem, Brazil. , 1966, American journal of epidemiology.

[31]  G. Ebel,et al.  A global perspective on the epidemiology of West Nile virus. , 2008, Annual review of entomology.

[32]  A. Ellis,et al.  West Nile virus antibody prevalence in American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and fish crows (Corvus ossifragus) in Georgia, USA. , 2007, Avian diseases.

[33]  R. Mclean.  WEST NILE VIRUS IN NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS , 2006 .

[34]  William,et al.  FERAL EXOTIC BIRDS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA , 2002 .

[35]  D. D. Stamm.  Relationships of Birds and Arboviruses , 1966 .