Computations and Computers in the Sciences of Mind and Brain

Computationalism says that brains are computing mechanisms, that is, mechanisms that perform computations. At present, there is no consensus on how to formulate computationalism precisely or adjudicate the dispute between computationalism and its foes, or between different versions of computationalism. An important reason for the current impasse is the lack of a satisfactory philosophical account of computing mechanisms. The main goal of this dissertation is to offer such an account. I also believe that the history of computationalism sheds light on the current debate. By tracing different versions of computationalism to their common historical origin, we can see how the current divisions originated and understand their motivation. Reconstructing debates over computationalism in the context of their own intellectual history can contribute to philosophical progress on the relation between brains and computing mechanisms and help determine how brains and computing mechanisms are alike, and how they differ. Accordingly, my dissertation is divided into a historical part, which traces the early history of computationalism up to 1946, and a philosophical part, which offers an account of computing mechanisms. The two main ideas developed in this dissertation are that (1) computational states are to be identified functionally not semantically, and (2) computing mechanisms are to be studied by functional analysis. The resulting account of computing mechanism, which I call the functional account of computing mechanisms, can be used to identify computing mechanisms and the functions they compute. I use the functional account of computing mechanisms to taxonomize computing mechanisms based on their different computing power, and I use this taxonomy of computing mechanisms to taxonomize different versions of computationalism based on the functional properties that they ascribe to brains. By doing so, I begin to tease out empirically testable statements about the functional organization of the brain that different versions of computationalism are committed to. I submit that when computationalism is reformulated in the more explicit and precise way I propose, the disputes about computationalism can be adjudicated on the grounds of empirical evidence from neuroscience.

[1]  E. Adrian,et al.  The impulses produced by sensory nerve‐endings , 1926 .

[2]  A. Newell.  Unified Theories of Cognition , 1990 .

[3]  Hilary Putnam,et al.  Mind, Language and Reality: The mental life of some machines , 1975 .

[4]  Claude E. Shannon,et al.  A mathematical theory of communication , 1948, MOCO.

[5]  Guglielmo Tamburrini,et al.  Mechanistic Theories in Cognitive Science: The Import of Turing’s Thesis , 1997 .

[6]  R. Hughes.  Models as Mediators: The Ising model, computer simulation, and universal physics , 1999 .

[7]  H. Putnam.  Representation and Reality , 1993 .

[8]  Ron Chrisley,et al.  Why everything doesn't realize every computation , 1994, Minds and Machines.

[9]  D. Dennett.  The Intentional Stance. , 1987 .

[10]  Eric Dietrich,et al.  Semantics and the computational paradigm in cognitive psychology , 1989, Synthese.

[11]  E. Robinson.  Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine , 1963 .

[12]  Linda B. Smith,et al.  A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action , 2007, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[13]  Carol E. Cleland.  Recipes, Algorithms, and Programs , 2004, Minds and Machines.

[14]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  On Alan Turing's anticipation of connectionism , 1996, Synthese.

[15]  R. Hartley.  Transmission of information , 1928 .

[16]  Gualtiero Piccinini,et al.  Alan Turing and the Mathematical Objection , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[17]  Nick Zangwill.  Variable Realization: Not Proved , 1992 .

[18]  Stewart Shapiro,et al.  Remarks on the development of computability , 1983 .

[19]  Gualtiero Piccinini,et al.  Turing's Rules for the Imitation Game , 2000, Minds and Machines.

[20]  RONALD W. CLARK.  Bertrand Russell , 1972, Nature.

[21]  Luciano Floridi,et al.  Philosophy and Computing: An Introduction , 1999 .

[22]  Kurt Gödel,et al.  On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems , 1966 .

[23]  Michael Prasse,et al.  Why Church's Thesis Still Holds. Some Notes on Peter Wegner's Tracts on Interaction and Computability , 1998, Comput. J..

[24]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  Turing, Wittgenstein and the science of the mind , 1994 .

[25]  Robert Cummins,et al.  Connectionism, computation, and cognition , 1991 .

[26]  Hilary Putnam.  Mind, Language and Reality: Robots: machines or artificially created life? , 1975 .

[27]  L. Wittgenstein.  Philosophical investigations = Philosophische Untersuchungen , 1958 .

[28]  Mike Stannett,et al.  X-machines and the halting problem: Building a super-turing machine , 1990, Formal Aspects of Computing.

[29]  Mario Bunge,et al.  Function and Functionalism: A Synthetic Perspective , 2001, Philosophy of Science.

[30]  W. Pitts,et al.  What the Frog's Eye Tells the Frog's Brain , 1959, Proceedings of the IRE.

[31]  G. Kreisel.  A Notion of Mechanistic Theory , 1974 .

[32]  Herbert Feigl,et al.  The Mental and the Physical: The Essay and a Postscript , 1967 .

[33]  Gilbert Harman,et al.  Three Levels of Meaning , 1968 .

[34]  A. Church.  An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory , 1936 .

[35]  H. Dale,et al.  Lane lectures on experimental pharmacology and medicine , 1930 .

[36]  Robert Cummins,et al.  Programs in the Explanation of Behavior , 1977, Philosophy of Science.

[37]  R. Cummins.  Meaning and mental representation , 1990 .

[38]  R. Frank.  Instruments, Nerve Action, and the All-or-None Principle , 1994, Osiris.

[39]  W. Bechtel,et al.  Multiple Realizability Revisited: Linking Cognitive and Neural States , 1999, Philosophy of Science.

[40]  A. Seidel.  Mind Design II , 1998 .

[41]  Annette Dolphin.  Neural Codes and Distributed Representations: Foundations of Neural Computation , 2000 .

[42]  R. Carnap.  Der logische Aufbau der Welt , 1998 .

[43]  Peter Wegner.  Towards Empirical Computer Science , 1999 .

[44]  J J Hopfield,et al.  Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. , 1982, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[45]  N. Block.  Troubles with functionalism , 1993 .

[46]  Oron Shagrir.  Two Dogmas of Computationalism , 2004, Minds and Machines.

[47]  M. Hogarth.  Non-Turing Computers and Non-Turing Computability , 1994, PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association.

[48]  Oron Shagrir,et al.  Effective Computation by Humans and Machines , 2002, Minds and Machines.

[49]  Tien D. Kieu,et al.  Quantum Hypercomputation , 2002, Minds and Machines.

[50]  Peter Dayan,et al.  Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems , 2001 .

[51]  F ROSENBLATT,et al.  The perceptron: a probabilistic model for information storage and organization in the brain. , 1958, Psychological review.

[52]  P. Churchland.  Scientific realism and the plasticity of mind , 1980 .

[53]  Warren S. Mcculloch,et al.  The brain computing machine , 1949, Electrical Engineering.

[54]  Selmer Bringsjord.  The Narrational Case against Church's Thesis , 1998 .

[55]  Tara H Abraham,et al.  (Physio)logical circuits: the intellectual origins of the McCulloch-Pitts neural networks. , 2002, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences.

[56]  H. Putnam,et al.  Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis , 1958 .

[57]  Andrew Hodges.  Turing: A natural philosopher , 1997 .

[58]  J. Fodor.  The Appeal to Tacit Knowledge in Psychological Explanation , 1968 .

[59]  D. Lewkowicz,et al.  A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. , 2007, Journal of cognitive neuroscience.

[60]  Pamela McCorduck,et al.  Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence , 1979 .

[61]  Wolfram,et al.  Undecidability and intractability in theoretical physics. , 1985, Physical review letters.

[62]  Oron Shagrir,et al.  Physical Hypercomputation and the Church–Turing Thesis , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[63]  A. Church.  On the concept of a random sequence , 1940 .

[64]  Zenon W. Pylyshyn,et al.  Connectionism and cognitive architecture , 1993 .

[65]  Vann McGee,et al.  We turing machines aren't expected-utility maximizers (even ideally) , 1991 .

[66]  Wilfrid S. Sellars,et al.  Some Reflections on Language Games , 1954, Philosophy of Science.

[67]  Robert A. Hall,et al.  Mind and Meaning , 1983 .

[68]  Oron Shagrir.  What is Computer Science About , 1999 .

[69]  M. Arbib.  Warren McCulloch's Search for the Logic of the Nervous System , 2000, Perspectives in biology and medicine.

[70]  Christof Koch,et al.  Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons (Computational Neuroscience Series) , 1998 .

[71]  Ned Block,et al.  Advertisement for a Semantics for Psychology , 1987 .

[72]  Emil L. Post.  Finite combinatory processes—formulation , 1936, Journal of Symbolic Logic.

[73]  J. A. Fodor,et al.  Tom Swift and his procedural grandmother , 1978, Cognition.

[74]  Tim Crane,et al.  The language of thought: No syntax without semantics , 1990 .

[75]  J. Heijenoort.  From Frege To Gödel , 1967 .

[76]  Stephen Cole Kleene,et al.  Origins of recursive function theory , 1979, 20th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (sfcs 1979).

[77]  J. Fodor.  Methodological solipsism considered as a research strategy in cognitive psychology , 1980, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[78]  D. Dennett.  Artificial Intelligence as Philosophy and as Psychology , 1978 .

[79]  Mike Stannett,et al.  Computation and Hypercomputation , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[80]  W. McCulloch.  THE FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX , 1944 .

[81]  T. Horgan,et al.  Connectionism and the Philosophy of Mind , 1991 .

[82]  Paolo Cotogno,et al.  Hypercomputation and the Physical Church‐Turing Thesis , 2003, The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science.

[83]  B. Russell.  Our Knowledge of the External World , 1960 .

[84]  M. Martin.  White Queen Psychology and Other Essays for Alice , 1995 .

[85]  Hava T. Siegelmann,et al.  Neural networks and analog computation - beyond the Turing limit , 1999, Progress in theoretical computer science.

[86]  Christopher Peacocke,et al.  Content, Computation and Externalism , 1994 .

[87]  Gualtiero Piccinini,et al.  Jean-Pierre Dupuy, The Mechanization of Mind: On the Origins of Cognitive Science , 2002, Minds and Machines.

[88]  Paul M. Churchland,et al.  Could a Machine Think?: Classical AI Is Unlikely to Yield Conscious Machines; Systems That Mimic the Brain Might , 1994 .

[89]  U. T. Place,et al.  Is consciousness a brain process? , 1956, British journal of psychology.

[90]  Ruth Garrett Millikan,et al.  White Queen Psychology and Other Essays for Alice. , 1984 .

[91]  Joel David Hamkins,et al.  Infinite Time Turing Machines , 1998, Journal of Symbolic Logic.

[92]  Elliott Mendelson,et al.  Second Thoughts about Church's Thesis and Mathematical Proofs , 1990 .

[93]  Janet Folina,et al.  Church's Thesis: Prelude to a Proof , 1998 .

[94]  Elaine J. Weyuker,et al.  Computability, complexity, and languages , 1983 .

[95]  W. Lycan.  Form, Function, and Feel , 1981 .

[96]  John R. Searle,et al.  Minds, brains, and programs , 1980, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[97]  R. L. Nó,et al.  A Study Of Nerve Physiology , 1947 .

[98]  Barkley Rosser.  Gödel Kurt. Über die Länge von Beweisen. Ergebnisse eirtes mathematischen Kolloquiums, Heft 7, pp. 23–24. , 1936, Journal of Symbolic Logic.

[99]  Herman H. Goldstine,et al.  Preliminary discussion of the logical design of an electronic computing instrument (1946) , 1989 .

[100]  John R. Searle,et al.  The Rediscovery of the Mind , 1995, Artif. Intell..

[101]  S. Stich.  From folk psychology to cognitive science , 1983 .

[102]  S. C. Kleene,et al.  Introduction to Metamathematics , 1952 .

[103]  O. G. Selfridge,et al.  Pandemonium: a paradigm for learning , 1988 .

[104]  Martin D. Davis,et al.  Why Gödel Didn't Have Church's Thesis , 1982, Inf. Control..

[105]  Justin Leiber,et al.  An invitation to cognitive science , 1991 .

[106]  W. Pitts.  The linear theory of neuron networks: The dynamic problem , 1942 .

[107]  Claude E. Shannon,et al.  A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits , 1938, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

[108]  John von Neumann,et al.  First draft of a report on the EDVAC , 1993, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing.

[109]  Geoffrey Hunter.  What Computers Can't Do , 1988, Philosophy.

[110]  S. Shanker.  Turing and the Origins of AI , 1995 .

[111]  L. Wittgenstein.  Remarks on the philosophy of psychology , 1980 .

[112]  William P. Alston,et al.  Knowledge and the Flow of Information , 1985 .

[113]  Computing Machinery and Intelligence Mind Vol. 59 , 2022 .

[114]  Marian Boykan Pour-El,et al.  Computability in analysis and physics , 1989, Perspectives in Mathematical Logic.

[115]  Paul Young,et al.  An introduction to the general theory of algorithms , 1978 .

[116]  Wilfried Sieg.  Step by recursive step: Church's analysis of effective calculability , 1997, Bull. Symb. Log..

[117]  S C Kleene,et al.  Representation of Events in Nerve Nets and Finite Automata , 1951 .

[118]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  Accelerating Turing Machines , 2002, Minds and Machines.

[119]  William Aspray,et al.  Computing before computers , 1990 .

[120]  Robin Gandy,et al.  The confluence of ideas in 1936 , 1988 .

[121]  E. B. Davies.  Building Infinite Machines , 2001, The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science.

[122]  J. Fodor,et al.  What psychological states are not , 1972 .

[123]  Hilary Putnam,et al.  The Philosophy of Mathematics: , 2019, The Mathematical Imagination.

[124]  Terrence J. Sejnowski,et al.  The Computational Brain , 1996, Artif. Intell..

[125]  P. Odifreddi.  The theory of functions and sets of natural numbers , 1989 .

[126]  A. Battersby.  Plans and the Structure of Behavior , 1968 .

[127]  D. Pandya,et al.  Cortico-cortical connections in the rhesus monkey. , 1969, Brain research.

[128]  William Aspray,et al.  Papers of John Von Neumann on computing and computer theory, Vol 12 , 1986 .

[129]  L. Wittgenstein.  Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , 2021, Nordic Wittgenstein Review.

[130]  Frances Egan,et al.  Computation and Content , 1995 .

[131]  T. Burge.  Individualism and psychology , 1993 .

[132]  Oron Shagrir,et al.  Multiple Realization, Computation and the Taxonomy of Psychological States , 1998, Synthese.

[133]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  Narrow Versus Wide Mechanism: Including a Re-Examination of Turing’s Views on the Mind-Machine Issue , 2000 .

[134]  R. Kitchener,et al.  Handbook of behaviorism , 1999 .

[135]  Christopher Peacocke.  Computation as Involving Content: A Response to Egan , 1999 .

[136]  W. McCulloch.  Recollections of the Many Sources of Cybernetics , 1974 .

[137]  Berent Enç.  In Defense of the Identity Theory , 1983 .

[138]  Barry Loewer,et al.  Meaning in mind : Fodor and his critics , 1993 .

[139]  David J. Chalmers,et al.  Does a rock implement every finite-state automaton? , 1996, Synthese.

[140]  A. Turing.  On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. , 1937 .

[141]  Carol E. Cleland.  Effective procedures and computable functions , 2004, Minds and Machines.

[142]  P. Machamer,et al.  Thinking about Mechanisms , 2000, Philosophy of Science.

[143]  C. Sherrington.  Man On His Nature , 1940 .

[144]  Rick Grush,et al.  The semantic challenge to computational neuroscience , 2001 .

[145]  Steven H. Strogatz,et al.  Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos , 2024 .

[146]  Georges Rey,et al.  Contemporary Philosophy of Mind: A Contentiously Classical Approach , 1997 .

[147]  Lenore Blum,et al.  Complexity and Real Computation , 1997, Springer New York.

[148]  R. Cummins.  The nature of psychological explanation , 1983 .

[149]  J. Fodor,et al.  The Language of Thought , 1980 .

[150]  R. Penrose,et al.  Shadows of the Mind , 1994 .

[151]  D. Lewis,et al.  Mad Pain and Martian Pain , 1983 .

[152]  A. M. Turing,et al.  Computing Machinery and Intelligence , 1950, The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence.

[153]  Joseph Henry Woodger,et al.  The axiomatic method in biology , 1938 .

[154]  Jean,et al.  The Computer and the Brain , 1989, Annals of the History of Computing.

[155]  Elliott Mendelson.  On some recent criticism of Church's Thesis , 1963, Notre Dame J. Formal Log..

[156]  J. Earman,et al.  Forever Is a Day: Supertasks in Pitowsky and Malament-Hogarth Spacetimes , 1993, Philosophy of Science.

[157]  Fritz Rohrlich,et al.  Computer Simulation in the Physical Sciences , 1990, PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association.

[158]  Gilbert Harman,et al.  Nonsolipsistic) Conceptual Role Semantics , 1999 .

[159]  W. Pitts,et al.  How we know universals; the perception of auditory and visual forms. , 1947, The Bulletin of mathematical biophysics.

[160]  G. Miller,et al.  Plans and the structure of behavior , 1960 .

[161]  John Haugeland.  The nature and plausibility of Cognitivism , 1978, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[162]  John Haugeland,et al.  Analog and Analog , 1981 .

[163]  Lawrence A. Shapiro.  A Clearer Vision , 1997, Philosophy of Science.

[164]  Casiano Rodríguez León,et al.  Alan Mathison Turing , 2000 .

[165]  Hao Wang,et al.  From Mathematics to Philosophy. , 1975 .

[166]  S. Kleene.  A Theory of Positive Integers in Formal Logic. Part II , 1935 .

[167]  Stephen Cole Kleene,et al.  Reflections on Church's thesis , 1987, Notre Dame J. Formal Log..

[168]  D. McDermott.  Computation and consciousness , 1990, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[169]  J. Fodor,et al.  A Theory of Content and Other Essays. , 1992 .

[170]  A. Turing.  Lecture to the London Mathematical Society on 20 February 1947. 1986. , 1995, M.D. computing : computers in medical practice.

[171]  Hilary Putnam,et al.  Mind, Language and Reality: Some issues in the theory of grammar , 1975 .

[172]  F. Egan.  In defence of narrow mindedness , 1999 .

[173]  J. Dupré.  The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory , 2000 .

[174]  Jeremy Seligman,et al.  The Scope of Turing's Analysis of Effective Procedures , 2002, Minds and Machines.

[175]  Wilfrid S. Sellars.  Meaning as functional classification , 1974, Synthese.

[176]  Wilfrid S. Sellars.  Empiricism and the philosophy of mind , 1997 .

[177]  Paul D. Mac Lean.  Cybernetics: Circular Causal and Feedback Mechanisms in Biological and Social Systems , 1954, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine.

[178]  N. Rashevsky.  PHYSICO‐MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES , 1936 .

[179]  D. Deutsch.  Quantum theory, the Church–Turing principle and the universal quantum computer , 1985, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[180]  John von Neumann,et al.  Theory Of Self Reproducing Automata , 1967 .

[181]  Matthias Scheutz,et al.  When Physical Systems Realize Functions... , 1999, Minds and Machines.

[182]  J. Deutsch.  The structural basis of behavior , 1960 .

[183]  Wilfrid S. Sellars.  Science, perception, and reality , 1963 .

[184]  Hava T. Siegelmann,et al.  Neural and Super-Turing Computing , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[185]  Steve J. Heims,et al.  John Von Neumann and Norbert Wiener, From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death , 1980 .

[186]  Wilfried Sieg,et al.  An abstract model for parallel computations : Gandy's thesis , 1999 .

[187]  Lee A. Rubel,et al.  Digital simulation of analog computation and Church's thesis , 1989, Journal of Symbolic Logic.

[188]  D. Dennett.  Why the Law of Effect will not Go Away , 1975 .

[189]  Georg Kreisel,et al.  Which number theoretic problems can be solved in recursive progressions on Π11-paths through O? , 1972, Journal of Symbolic Logic.

[190]  DISCUSSION: WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE SYNTACTIC THEORY OF MIND* , 1989 .

[191]  Peter H. Salus,et al.  Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories: New Foundations for Realism , 1987 .

[192]  Marco Giunti,et al.  Computation, Dynamics, and Cognition , 2001 .

[193]  Christopher S. Hill,et al.  Mechanism, Mentalism and Metamathematics , 1980 .

[194]  T. Gelder,et al.  What Might Cognition Be, If Not Computation? , 1995 .

[195]  L. Wittgenstein.  Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology, Volume 2 , 1980 .

[196]  Alonzo Church,et al.  Introduction to Mathematical Logic , 1991 .

[197]  D. Lewis.  Psychophysical and theoretical identifications , 1972 .

[198]  William Aspray,et al.  John von Neumann and the origins of modern computing , 1990, History of computing.

[199]  Christof Koch,et al.  The role of single neurons in information processing , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[200]  Martin D. Davis,et al.  Computability and Unsolvability , 1959, McGraw-Hill Series in Information Processing and Computers.

[201]  W. Pitts,et al.  A mathematical theory of the affective psychoses , 1943 .

[202]  H. Gardner.  The mind's new science: a history of the cognitive revolution , 1985 .

[203]  Frances Egan,et al.  Individualism, computation, and perceptual content , 1992 .

[204]  Georg Kreisel,et al.  Church's thesis and the ideal of informal rigour , 1987, Notre Dame J. Formal Log..

[205]  David Harel,et al.  Computers Ltd - what they really can't do , 2000 .

[206]  Raymond J. Nelson,et al.  Church's thesis and cognitive science , 1987, Notre Dame J. Formal Log..

[207]  James H. Moor,et al.  The Status and Future of the Turing Test , 2001, Minds and Machines.

[208]  Seeing What Is Not There , 1989 .

[209]  Wilfried Sieg,et al.  K-graph machines : generalizing Turing's machines and arguments , 1996 .

[210]  John Bickle,et al.  Psychoneural Reduction: The New Wave , 1998 .

[211]  C. E. SHANNON,et al.  A mathematical theory of communication , 1948, MOCO.

[212]  David Lewis,et al.  An Argument for the Identity Theory , 1966 .

[213]  Kurt Gödel,et al.  On undecidable propositions of formal mathematical systems , 1934 .

[214]  C. Peacocke.  A Study of Concepts , 1994 .

[215]  Martin H. Levinson.  Linked: The New Science of Networks , 2004 .

[216]  S. Luper.  The Absurdity of Life , 1992 .

[217]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  What is computation? , 1996, Synthese.

[218]  Daniel Crevier,et al.  Ai: The Tumultuous History Of The Search For Artificial Intelligence , 1993 .

[219]  Alan M. Turing,et al.  Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals , 2012, Alan Turing's Systems of Logic.

[220]  Robert Kirk,et al.  A Study of Concepts , 1994 .

[221]  R. Fancher.  Psychoanalytic Psychology: The Development of Freud's Thought , 1973 .

[222]  C. Craver.  Role Functions, Mechanisms, and Hierarchy , 2001, Philosophy of Science.

[223]  G. Piccinini.  Epistemic divergence and the publicity of scientific methods , 2003 .

[224]  Allen Newell,et al.  Physical Symbol Systems , 1980, Cogn. Sci..

[225]  W. Pitts.  Some observations on the simple neuron circuit , 1942 .

[226]  Cora Diamond,et al.  Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics. , 1977 .

[227]  O. G. Selfridge,et al.  Pattern recognition and modern computers , 1899, AFIPS '55 (Western).

[228]  W. Pitts,et al.  A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity (1943) , 2021, Ideas That Created the Future.

[229]  A. Church.  Review: A. M. Turing, On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem , 1937 .

[230]  Wilfried Sieg,et al.  Mechanical Procedures and Mathematical Experience , 1991 .

[231]  Brian Cantwell Smith,et al.  On the origin of objects , 1997, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[232]  Donald J. Patterson,et al.  Computer organization and design: the hardware-software interface (appendix a , 1993 .

[233]  Stephen Cole Kleene,et al.  On notation for ordinal numbers , 1938, Journal of Symbolic Logic.

[234]  J. A. Anderson,et al.  Talking Nets: An Oral History Of Neural Networks , 1998, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks.

[235]  Jaegwon Kim,et al.  Philosophy of Mind , 1996 .

[236]  Kenneth M. Ford,et al.  The prehistory of android epistemology , 1995 .

[237]  Jaegwon Kim,et al.  The myth of non-reductive materialism , 1989 .

[238]  Harvey Gould,et al.  Computer simulations , 1990 .

[239]  Ralph Erskine,et al.  Alan Turing: the Enigma - Book Reviem , 1984, Cryptologia.

[240]  Frank Jackson,et al.  Functionalism and broad content , 1988 .

[241]  David Israel.  Reflections on Gödel's and Gandy's Reflections on Turing's Thesis , 2004, Minds and Machines.

[242]  D. Chalmers.  The conscious mind: in search of a fundamental theory , 1996 .

[243]  John Fox,et al.  Mind and meaning , 1993, Nature.

[244]  N. RafaelLorenteDe,et al.  ANALYSIS OF THE ACTIVITY OF THE CHAINS OF INTERNUNCIAL NEURONS , 1938 .

[245]  A. Church.  A Set of Postulates for the Foundation of Logic , 1932 .

[246]  Carol E. Cleland.  Is the Church-Turing thesis true? , 1993, Minds and Machines.

[247]  Wolfgang Köhler,et al.  The place of value in a world of facts , 1939 .

[248]  W. McCulloch,et al.  Embodiments of Mind , 1966 .

[249]  Paolo Mancosu,et al.  From Brouwer to Hilbert: The Debate on the Foundations of Mathematics in the 1920s , 1997 .

[250]  Sydney Shoemaker,et al.  Identity, Cause, And Mind , 1984 .

[251]  N. Wiener,et al.  Behavior, Purpose and Teleology , 1943, Philosophy of Science.

[252]  G. Segal.  Defence of a Reasonable Individualism , 1991 .

[253]  J. von Neumann,et al.  Probabilistic Logic and the Synthesis of Reliable Organisms from Unreliable Components , 1956 .

[254]  Gualtiero Piccinini,et al.  Book Review: John von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain, 2nd edition , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[255]  Martin Davis,et al.  The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing , 2002 .

[256]  A. J. Wells,et al.  Turing's Analysis of Computation and Theories of Cognitive Architecture , 1998, Cogn. Sci..

[257]  Z. Vendler,et al.  Res Cogitans: An Essay in Rational Psychology , 1972 .

[258]  Zenon W. Pylyshyn,et al.  Computation and Cognition: Toward a Foundation for Cognitive Science , 1984 .

[259]  Brian L. Keeley.  Shocking Lessons from Electric Fish: The Theory and Practice of Multiple Realization , 2000, Philosophy of Science.

[260]  S. J. Heims,et al.  Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America: The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953; Steve Heims , 2001 .

[261]  L. A. Jeffress,et al.  Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior , 1953 .

[262]  Jerry A. Fodor,et al.  Special Sciences: Still Autonomous after All these Years , 2008 .

[263]  W. Schmaus.  Functionalism and the Meaning of Social Facts , 1999, Philosophy of Science.

[264]  Jay F. Rosenberg,et al.  Language, thought and other Biological Categories: New Foundations for Realism , 1987 .

[265]  I. Rumfitt,et al.  Making it Explicit: Reasoning, Representing, and Discursive Commitment. , 1997 .

[266]  P. Smolensky.  On the proper treatment of connectionism , 1988, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[267]  William Aspray,et al.  The Scientific Conceptualization of Information: A Survey , 1985, Annals of the History of Computing.

[268]  G. Ryle,et al.  心的概念 = The concept of mind , 1962 .

[269]  Carol E. Cleland.  On Effective Procedures , 2004, Minds and Machines.

[270]  Stewart Shapiro.  Reasoning, Logic and Computation , 1995 .

[271]  Paul M. Churchland,et al.  Is Thinker a Natural Kind? , 1982, Dialogue.

[272]  J. J. C. Smart,et al.  Sensations and brain processes , 1959 .

[273]  E. Sober.  The Multiple Realizability Argument against Reductionism , 1999, Philosophy of Science.

[274]  L. Kubie.  A THEORETICAL APPLICATION TO SOME NEUROLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE PROPERTIES OF EXCITATION WAVES WHICH MOVE IN CLOSED CIRCUITS , 1930 .

[275]  J. Neumann.  The General and Logical Theory of Au-tomata , 1963 .

[276]  Stuart G. Shanker,et al.  Wittgenstein versus Turing on the nature of Church's thesis , 1987, Notre Dame J. Formal Log..

[277]  Stewart Shapiro,et al.  Understanding Church's thesis , 1981, J. Philos. Log..

[278]  R. Jeffrey,et al.  1. The Logical Analysis of Psychology , 1980 .