Active vision in passive locomotion: real-world free viewing in infants and adults.

Visual exploration in infants and adults has been studied using two very different paradigms: free viewing of flat screen displays in desk-mounted eye-tracking studies and real-world visual guidance of action in head-mounted eye-tracking studies. To test whether classic findings from screen-based studies generalize to real-world visual exploration and to compare natural visual exploration in infants and adults, we tested observers in a new paradigm that combines critical aspects of both previous techniques: free viewing during real-world visual exploration. Mothers and their 9-month-old infants wore head-mounted eye trackers while mothers carried their infants in a forward-facing infant carrier through a series of indoor hallways. Demands for visual guidance of action were minimal in mothers and absent for infants, so both engaged in free viewing while moving through the environment. Similar to screen-based studies, during free viewing in the real world low-level saliency was related to gaze direction. In contrast to screen-based studies, only infants - not adults - were biased to look at people, participants of both ages did not show a classic center bias, and mothers and infants did not display high levels of inter-observer consistency. Results indicate that several aspects of visual exploration of a flat screen display do not generalize to visual exploration in the real world.

[1]  M. Hayhoe,et al.  The coordination of eye, head, and hand movements in a natural task , 2001, Experimental Brain Research.

[2]  Linda B. Smith,et al.  Joint Attention without Gaze Following: Human Infants and Their Parents Coordinate Visual Attention to Objects through Eye-Hand Coordination , 2013, PloS one.

[3]  A. Needham,et al.  Reaching experience increases face preference in 3-month-old infants. , 2011, Developmental science.

[4]  O. Meur,et al.  Predicting visual fixations on video based on low-level visual features , 2007, Vision Research.

[5]  Karen E. Adolph,et al.  Visually guided navigation: Head-mounted eye-tracking of natural locomotion in children and adults , 2010, Vision Research.

[6]  Ranxiao Frances Wang,et al.  Seeking one’s heading through eye movements , 2000, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[7]  Michael F. Land,et al.  From eye movements to actions: how batsmen hit the ball , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[8]  Rick O. Gilmore,et al.  > Replace This Line with Your Paper Identification Number (double-click Here to Edit) < Ii. Estimation of Optic Flow and Self-motion from Understanding the Development of Motion Processing by Characterizing Optic Flow Experienced by Infants and Their Mothers , 2022 .

[9]  M. Land,et al.  The Roles of Vision and Eye Movements in the Control of Activities of Daily Living , 1998, Perception.

[10]  F. Simion,et al.  Face detection in complex visual displays: an eye-tracking study with 3- and 6-month-old infants and adults. , 2012, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[11]  David I. Anderson,et al.  Travel Broadens the Mind. , 2000, Infancy : the official journal of the International Society on Infant Studies.

[12]  V. Tosi,et al.  Scanning eye movements made when viewing film: preliminary observations. , 1997, The International journal of neuroscience.

[13]  John M. Henderson,et al.  Clustering of Gaze During Dynamic Scene Viewing is Predicted by Motion , 2011, Cognitive Computation.

[14]  Roland J. Baddeley,et al.  The nature of the visual representations involved in eye movements when walking down the street , 2009 .

[15]  F. Volkmar,et al.  Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. , 2002, Archives of general psychiatry.

[16]  Ranxiao Frances Wang,et al.  Eye movements and an object-based model of heading perception , 2004 .

[17]  Thomas Martinetz,et al.  Variability of eye movements when viewing dynamic natural scenes. , 2010, Journal of vision.

[18]  D R Proffitt,et al.  Perception of biomechanical motions by infants: implementation of various processing constraints. , 1987, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[19]  Attention-orienting and attention-holding effects of faces on 4- to 8-month-old infants , 2013 .

[20]  L. Itti.  Author address: , 1999 .

[21]  Christof Koch,et al.  A Model of Saliency-Based Visual Attention for Rapid Scene Analysis , 2009 .

[22]  Kaitlin E W Laidlaw,et al.  Potential social interactions are important to social attention , 2011, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[23]  K. Turano,et al.  Oculomotor strategies for the direction of gaze tested with a real-world activity , 2003, Vision Research.

[24]  Mary M Hayhoe,et al.  Visual memory and motor planning in a natural task. , 2003, Journal of vision.

[25]  Douglas P. Munoz,et al.  Expression of a re-centering bias in saccade regulation by superior colliculus neurons , 2001, Experimental Brain Research.

[26]  David C Burr,et al.  Temporal auditory capture does not affect the time course of saccadic mislocalization of visual stimuli. , 2010, Journal of vision.

[27]  Dima Amso,et al.  An Eye Tracking Investigation of Developmental Change in Bottom-up Attention Orienting to Faces in Cluttered Natural Scenes , 2014, PloS one.

[28]  Chen Yu,et al.  Understanding embodied visual attention in child-parent interaction , 2013, 2013 IEEE Third Joint International Conference on Development and Learning and Epigenetic Robotics (ICDL).

[29]  Ruxandra Sireteanu,et al.  The development of visual acuity in the peripheral visual field of human infants: binocular and monocular measurements , 1994, Vision Research.

[30]  T. Foulsham,et al.  How Does the Purpose of Inspection Influence the Potency of Visual Salience in Scene Perception? , 2007, Perception.

[31]  A. L. I︠A︡rbus.  Eye Movements and Vision , 1967 .

[32]  Laurent Itti,et al.  Interesting objects are visually salient. , 2008, Journal of vision.

[33]  D. Heeger,et al.  A Hierarchy of Temporal Receptive Windows in Human Cortex , 2008, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[34]  P. König,et al.  Gaze allocation in natural stimuli: Comparing free exploration to head-fixed viewing conditions , 2009 .

[35]  Scott P. Johnson,et al.  Attentional capture by social stimuli in young infants , 2013, Front. Psychol..

[36]  F. Hamker,et al.  About the influence of post-saccadic mechanisms for visual stability on peri-saccadic compression of object location. , 2008, Journal of vision.

[37]  D. Ballard,et al.  Eye guidance in natural vision: reinterpreting salience. , 2011, Journal of vision.

[38]  A E Patla,et al.  Where and when do we look as we approach and step over an obstacle in the travel path? , 1997, Neuroreport.

[39]  C. Koch,et al.  A saliency-based search mechanism for overt and covert shifts of visual attention , 2000, Vision Research.

[40]  Richard Stevens,et al.  Are you seeing what I'm seeing? An eye-tracking evaluation of dynamic scenes , 2009, Digit. Creativity.

[41]  Eileen Kowler,et al.  Anticipatory smooth eye movements with random-dot kinematograms. , 2012, Journal of vision.

[42]  Mary Hayhoe,et al.  Control of attention and gaze in complex environments. , 2006, Journal of vision.

[43]  Massimiliano Di Luca,et al.  Recalibration of multisensory simultaneity: cross-modal transfer coincides with a change in perceptual latency. , 2009, Journal of vision.

[44]  Mary M Hayhoe,et al.  Task and context determine where you look. , 2016, Journal of vision.

[45]  Christof Koch,et al.  Predicting human gaze using low-level saliency combined with face detection , 2007, NIPS.

[46]  Asha Iyer,et al.  Components of bottom-up gaze allocation in natural images , 2005, Vision Research.

[47]  C. Koch,et al.  Task-demands can immediately reverse the effects of sensory-driven saliency in complex visual stimuli. , 2008, Journal of vision.

[48]  Michael C. Frank,et al.  Development of infants’ attention to faces during the first year , 2009, Cognition.

[49]  Richard N. Aslin,et al.  Correspondences between what infants see and know about causal and self-propelled motion , 2011, Cognition.

[50]  Iain D. Gilchrist,et al.  Visual correlates of fixation selection: effects of scale and time , 2005, Vision Research.

[51]  B. Bertenthal,et al.  A systems approach to the organizing effects of self-produced locomotion during infancy , 1990 .

[52]  Tom Foulsham,et al.  Gaze allocation in a dynamic situation: Effects of social status and speaking , 2010, Cognition.

[53]  J. Todd,et al.  The effects of viewing angle, camera angle, and sign of surface curvature on the perception of three-dimensional shape from texture. , 2007, Journal of vision.

[54]  A. L. Yarbus,et al.  Eye Movements and Vision , 1967, Springer US.

[55]  John M. Franchak,et al.  Free Viewing Gaze Behavior in Infants and Adults. , 2016, Infancy : the official journal of the International Society on Infant Studies.

[56]  Jean Underwood,et al.  Visual Attention, Visual Saliency, and Eye Movements During the Inspection of Natural Scenes , 2005, IWINAC.

[57]  P. Perona,et al.  Objects predict fixations better than early saliency. , 2008, Journal of vision.

[58]  T. Foulsham,et al.  What can saliency models predict about eye movements? Spatial and sequential aspects of fixations during encoding and recognition. , 2008, Journal of vision.

[59]  R. C. Langford.  How People Look at Pictures, A Study of the Psychology of Perception in Art. , 1936 .

[60]  Benjamin W Tatler,et al.  The central fixation bias in scene viewing: selecting an optimal viewing position independently of motor biases and image feature distributions. , 2007, Journal of vision.

[61]  T. Foulsham,et al.  The where, what and when of gaze allocation in the lab and the natural environment , 2011, Vision Research.

[62]  David N. Lee,et al.  Where we look when we steer , 1994, Nature.

[63]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Faces Attract Infants' Attention in Complex Displays. , 2009, Infancy : the official journal of the International Society on Infant Studies.

[64]  Asif A. Ghazanfar,et al.  Human-Monkey Gaze Correlations Reveal Convergent and Divergent Patterns of Movie Viewing , 2010, Current Biology.

[65]  Kasey C. Soska,et al.  Head-mounted eye tracking: a new method to describe infant looking. , 2011, Child development.

[66]  E. Gibson.  Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and the acquiring of knowledge. , 1988 .

[67]  Michael L. Mack,et al.  VISUAL SALIENCY DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR EYE MOVEMENTS DURING VISUAL SEARCH IN REAL-WORLD SCENES , 2007 .

[68]  H. Roeyers,et al.  Can infants' orientation to social stimuli predict later joint attention skills? , 2012, The British journal of developmental psychology.

[69]  Richard N Aslin,et al.  How Infants View Natural Scenes Gathered From a Head-Mounted Camera , 2009, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[70]  J. Fuller,et al.  Eye position and target amplitude effects on human visual saccadic latencies , 1996, Experimental Brain Research.

[71]  Eli Peli,et al.  Where people look when watching movies: Do all viewers look at the same place? , 2007, Comput. Biol. Medicine.

[72]  Daniel R. Anderson,et al.  Age differences in online processing of video: an eye movement study. , 2012, Child development.

[73]  Uri Hasson,et al.  Temporal eye movement strategies during naturalistic viewing. , 2012, Journal of vision.

[74]  Derrick J. Parkhurst,et al.  Modeling the role of salience in the allocation of overt visual attention , 2002, Vision Research.

[75]  Barry B. Lee,et al.  Temporal frequency and chromatic processing in humans: an fMRI study of the cortical visual areas. , 2011, Journal of vision.

[76]  L. Itti,et al.  Quantifying center bias of observers in free viewing of dynamic natural scenes. , 2009, Journal of vision.