Air stepping in response to optic flows that move Toward and Away from the neonate.

To shed further light on the perceptual regulation of newborn stepping, we compared neonatal air stepping in response to optic flows simulating forward or backward displacement with stepping forward on a surface. Twenty-two 3-day-olds performed four 60 s trials in which they stepped forward on a table (Tactile) or in the air in response to a pattern that moved toward (Toward) or away (Away) from them or was static (Static). Significantly more steps were taken in the Tactile and Toward conditions than the Static condition. The Away condition was intermediate to the other conditions. The knee joint activity across the entire trial was significantly greater in the Toward than the Away condition. Within-limb kinematics and between-limb coordination were very similar for steps taken in the air and on the table, particularly in the Toward and Tactile conditions. These findings highlight that visual and tactile stimulation can equally elicit neonatal stepping.

[1]  Mary R. Fiorentino,et al.  A Basis for Sensorimotor Development-Normal and Abnormal: The Influence of Primitive, Postural Reflexes on the Development and Distribution of Tone , 1981 .

[2]  W J Davis,et al.  Locomotion: Control by Positive-Feedback Optokinetic Responses , 1972, Science.

[3]  J. F. Yang,et al.  Could different directions of infant stepping be controlled by the same locomotor central pattern generator? , 2000, Journal of neurophysiology.

[4]  E. Turiel,et al.  Judging social issues: difficulties, inconsistencies, and consistencies. , 1991, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.

[5]  E. Thelen,et al.  Newborn stepping: An explanation for a "disappearing" reflex. , 1982 .

[6]  A. d’Avella,et al.  Locomotor Primitives in Newborn Babies and Their Development , 2011, Science.

[7]  Kristin Musselman,et al.  Infant stepping: a window to the behaviour of the human pattern generator for walking. , 2004, Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology.

[8]  M. McGraw,et al.  From reflex to muscular control in the assumption of an erect posture and ambulation in the human infant. , 1932 .

[9]  J. Atkinson,et al.  Normal and anomalous development of visual motion processing: motion coherence and ‘dorsal-stream vulnerability’ , 2003, Neuropsychologia.

[10]  David I. Anderson,et al.  Neonatal stepping in relation to terrestrial optic flow. , 2009, Child development.

[11]  H. Forssberg.  Ontogeny of human locomotor control I. Infant stepping, supported locomotion and transition to independent locomotion , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[12]  E Thelen,et al.  Treadmill-elicited stepping in seven-month-old infants. , 1986, Child development.

[13]  P. Zelazo,et al.  "Walking" in the Newborn , 1972, Science.

[14]  Robert E. Schleihauf.  Biomechanics of Human Movement , 2004 .

[15]  B. Ulrich,et al.  Constraints on early movement: tykes, togs, and technology. , 2010, Infant behavior & development.

[16]  Albrecht Peiper,et al.  Cerebral function in infancy and childhood , 1963 .

[17]  B. Hopkins,et al.  Functional asymmetries in the stepping response of the human newborn: a kinematic approach , 2007, Experimental Brain Research.

[18]  B. Ulrich,et al.  Changes in muscle activation patterns in response to enhanced sensory input during treadmill stepping in infants born with myelomeningocele. , 2012, Human movement science.

[19]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Functional brain development in infants: elements of an interactive specialization framework. , 2000, Child development.

[20]  Beth A. Smith,et al.  Impact of Enhanced Sensory Input on Treadmill Step Frequency: Infants Born With Myelomeningocele , 2011, Pediatric physical therapy : the official publication of the Section on Pediatrics of the American Physical Therapy Association.

[21]  C. Nelson.  The Recognition of Facial Expressions in Infancy: Behavioral and Electrophysiological Evidence , 1993 .

[22]  E Thelen,et al.  Spontaneous kicking in month-old infants: manifestation of a human central locomotor program. , 1981, Behavioral and neural biology.

[23]  B. Ulrich.  Opportunities for Early Intervention Based on Theory, Basic Neuroscience, and Clinical Science , 2010, Physical Therapy.

[24]  V. Moerchen,et al.  Infant visual attention and step responsiveness to optic flow during treadmill stepping. , 2012, Infant behavior & development.

[26]  Bennett I. Bertenthal,et al.  Optic flow sensitivity in neonates , 2000 .

[27]  E. Thelen,et al.  Hidden skills: a dynamic systems analysis of treadmill stepping during the first year. , 1991, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.

[28]  F. Lacquaniti,et al.  Motor patterns for human gait: backward versus forward locomotion. , 1998, Journal of neurophysiology.

[29]  Albert Yonas,et al.  Effects of luminance and texture motion on infant defensive reactions to optical collision , 1994 .

[30]  H. Prechtl,et al.  The behavioural states of the newborn infant (a review). , 1974, Brain research.