Contingent self-esteem and vulnerability to depression: academic contingent self-esteem predicts depressive symptoms in students

Low self-esteem has been established as a vulnerability factor for depression. In line with recent research, we suggest that a full understanding of the role of self-esteem in depression requires consideration of contingent self-esteem as well. For most people, competence is an important source of self-esteem. Students in particular link their self-esteem to academic competence. To test the hypothesis that academic contingent self-esteem (aCSE) predicts depressive symptoms (DS), two studies were conducted. Preceding the investigation of our hypothesis, the first purpose of Study 1 was to describe the development of aCSE, self-esteem (SE) level, and DS in adolescence in a sample of German students aged 10–16 (N = 1888) in order to provide a foundation for further analyses. Then, to address the main question, age and gender differences in aCSE, SE level, and DS as well as their relations were investigated. The results show that (1) gender differences emerged after the age of 10/11. Girls scored higher on aCSE and DS and lower on SE level than did boys, and aCSE and DS decreased and SE level increased over time in boys, while the rather disadvantageous pattern in girls remained stable. (2) After controlling for SE level and aCSE, the effects of gender and age × gender interaction on DS disappeared, suggesting an influence of aCSE on DS. (3) aCSE predicted DS over and above SE level. Since the results of Study 1 did not allow for causal conclusions, a longitudinal study (N = 160) was conducted to further investigate the causal role of aCSE. According to the diathesis-stress model, aCSE was expected to serve as a diathesis for developing DS in the face of academic stress (daily hassles) during an academic semester at university. The results of Study 2 revealed that aCSE interacted with corresponding hassles to predict increases in DS. High levels of academic stress led to increases in DS only among students who strongly based their SE on academic competence. Implications for prevention and intervention of depression are discussed.

[1]  R. Vonk,et al.  Optimal Self–esteem is Contingent: Intrinsic versus Extrinsic and Upward versus Downward Contingencies , 2012 .

[2]  Malte Schwinger,et al.  Structure of Contingent Self-Esteem: Global, Domain-Specific, or Hierarchical Construct? , 2017 .

[3]  J. Crocker,et al.  Contingencies of Self-Worth , 2005, Psychological review.

[4]  J. Crocker,et al.  The costly pursuit of self-esteem. , 2004, Psychological bulletin.

[5]  B. Soenens,et al.  Does conservatism have a self-esteem enhancing function? An examination of associations with contingent self-worth and ill-being in late adults , 2012 .

[6]  C. Essau,et al.  Frequency, Comorbidity, and Psychosocial Impairment of Depressive Disorders in Adolescents , 2000 .

[7]  E. McDaniel.  Social Origins of Depression: A Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women , 1980 .

[8]  P. Lewinsohn,et al.  Major depressive disorder in older adolescents: prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. , 1998, Clinical psychology review.

[9]  A. Schaffrath Rosario,et al.  Sexuelle Reifung von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland , 2007, Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz.

[10]  M. Donnellan,et al.  Adolescent Self-esteem: Differences by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Age , 2011, Self and identity : the journal of the International Society for Self and Identity.

[11]  S. Baldwin,et al.  The Dynamics of Self-Esteem: A Growth-Curve Analysis , 2002 .

[12]  Laurenz L. Meier,et al.  What constitutes vulnerable self-esteem? Comparing the prospective effects of low, unstable, and contingent self-esteem on depressive symptoms. , 2014, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[13]  W. Ihle,et al.  Depression, Angst und Essstörungssymptomatik und erinnertes elterliches Erziehungsverhalten , 2005 .

[14]  J. Crocker,et al.  How Investment in Gender Ideals Affects Well-Being: The Role of External Contingencies of Self-Worth , 2005 .

[15]  J. Pettit,et al.  Explaining Gender Differences in Depression: an Interpersonal Contingent Self-Esteem Perspective , 2009 .

[16]  J. Crocker,et al.  Contingencies of Self-Worth, Academic Failure, and Goal Pursuit , 2007, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[17]  L. Acitelli,et al.  Examining the Link Between Friendship Contingent Self-Esteem and the Self-Propagating Cycle of Depression , 2010 .

[18]  D. Mohr,et al.  Major depressive disorder , 2016, Nature Reviews Disease Primers.

[19]  J. Abela,et al.  Cognitive vulnerability to depression in children and adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. , 2008 .

[20]  R. de Raedt,et al.  Self-esteem reconsidered: unstable self-esteem outperforms level of self-esteem as vulnerability marker for depression. , 2007, Behaviour research and therapy.

[21]  D. J. Lee.  Society and the Adolescent Self-Image , 1969 .

[22]  J. V. Wood,et al.  Should People with Low Self-Esteem Strive for High Self-Esteem? , 2006 .

[23]  Samuel R. Sommers,et al.  Hopes Dashed and Dreams Fulfilled: Contingencies of Self-Worth and Graduate School Admissions , 2002 .

[24]  S. Shirk,et al.  Contingent Self-worth and Gender Differences in Adolescent Depression: A Commentary , 2009 .

[25]  B. Roberts,et al.  Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood. , 2008, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[26]  E. Deci,et al.  Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. , 1995 .

[27]  Jennifer Crocker,et al.  Interpersonal Consequences of Seeking Self-Esteem , 2005, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[28]  Samuel D Gosling,et al.  Global self-esteem across the life span. , 2002, Psychology and aging.

[29]  J. Crocker,et al.  CONTINGENCIES OF SELF-WORTH AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS IN COLLEGE STUDENTS , 2006 .

[30]  Laurenz L. Meier,et al.  Disentangling the effects of low self-esteem and stressful events on depression: findings from three longitudinal studies. , 2009, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[31]  M. Kovacs.  The Children's Depression, Inventory (CDI). , 1985, Psychopharmacology bulletin.

[32]  I. Macsinga,et al.  Adaptation and Validation of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale on a Romanian Student Sample , 2012 .

[33]  M. Larimer,et al.  Feeling Controlled and Drinking Motives Among College Students: Contingent Self-Esteem as a Mediator , 2004 .

[34]  M. Hautzinger,et al.  Allgemeine Depressions Skala , 1993 .

[35]  R. Vonk,et al.  Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: two different ways of relating to oneself. , 2009, Journal of personality.

[36]  I. Gotlib,et al.  Consequences of depression during adolescence: marital status and marital functioning in early adulthood. , 1998, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[37]  J. Crocker,et al.  Contingencies of self-worth in college students: theory and measurement. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[38]  S. Shirk,et al.  Self Processes in Adolescent Depression: The Role of Self-Worth Contingencies. , 2006 .

[39]  R. Frost,et al.  Shedding Light on the Relationship Between Personal Standards and Psychopathology: The Case for Contingent Self-Worth , 2004 .

[40]  G. Metalsky,et al.  Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. , 1989 .

[41]  F. Petermann,et al.  Prevalence and comorbidities of adolescent depression in Germany. An analysis of Health Insurance Data. , 2012, Zeitschrift fur Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie.

[42]  R. Belmaker,et al.  Major depressive disorder. , 2008, The New England journal of medicine.

[43]  A. Rush,et al.  Kognitive Therapie der Depression , 2010 .

[44]  M. Kernis.  TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem , 2003 .

[45]  Paul A. O’Keefe,et al.  Shaping achievement goal orientations in a mastery-structured environment and concomitant changes in related contingencies of self-worth , 2013 .

[46]  P. Muris,et al.  Global, contingent and implicit self-esteem and psychopathological symptoms in adolescents , 2010 .

[47]  Veerle Germeijs,et al.  Contingencies of Self‐worth in Early Adolescence: The Antecedent Role of Perceived Parenting , 2013 .

[48]  F. Lopez,et al.  Externally Contingent and Unstable Self‐Worth as Predictors of Depression in College Women: A 3‐Month Study , 2014 .

[49]  Adrian Angold,et al.  Trends in psychopathology across the adolescent years: what changes when children become adolescents, and when adolescents become adults? , 2011, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[50]  L. Steinberg,et al.  When Friends Make You Blue: The Role of Friendship Contingent Self-Esteem in Predicting Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms , 2010, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[51]  R. Shoor.  The consequences of depression. , 1994, The state of health care in America.

[52]  G. Metalsky,et al.  Hopelessness Depression: An Empirical Search For a Theory-Based Subtype , 1990 .

[53]  M. Rosenberg.  Society and the adolescent self-image , 1966 .

[54]  L. Radloff.  The CES-D Scale , 1977 .

[55]  C. Anderson,et al.  Multiple Facets of Self-Esteem and their Relations to Depressive Symptoms , 1998 .

[56]  P. Y. Herzberg,et al.  Eine revidierte Fassung der deutschsprachigen Skala zum Selbstwertgefühl von Rosenberg , 2003 .

[57]  G. Groen,et al.  Depressive Störungen im Jugendalter , 2005 .

[58]  J. Crocker,et al.  Level of Self-Esteem and Contingencies of Self-Worth: Unique Effects on Academic, Social, and Financial Problems in College Students , 2003, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[59]  Laurenz L. Meier,et al.  Age differences in instability, contingency, and level of self-esteem across the life span , 2011 .

[60]  Jennifer Crocker,et al.  When grades determine self-worth: consequences of contingent self-worth for male and female engineering and psychology majors. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[61]  B. Soenens,et al.  Depressive symptoms in university freshmen: Longitudinal relations with contingent self-esteem and level of self-esteem. , 2013 .

[62]  H. Kraemer,et al.  Psychosocial and health consequences of adolescent depression in Black and White young adult women. , 2005, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[63]  J. Crocker,et al.  From Vulnerability to Resilience , 2004, Psychological science.

[64]  M. Peters,et al.  Meeting suffering with kindness: effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. , 2014, Journal of clinical psychology.

[65]  J. Crocker,et al.  Attachment Styles and Contingencies of Self-Worth , 2004, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[66]  U. Orth,et al.  Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: a longitudinal study. , 2011, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[67]  N. Gottlieb.  Social Origins of Depression: A Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. By George W. Brown and Tirril Harris. New York: Free Press, 1978. 399 pp. $19.95 , 1980 .

[68]  C. Essau,et al.  Gender differences in the developmental course of depression. , 2010, Journal of affective disorders.