Tourism and the Implications of Climate Change: Issues and Actions

This volume provides a valuable platform for knowledge exchange between different disciplines and for learning from both theory and practice in the context of tourism and climate change. The academic and case-study chapters in this volume provide a contextualization of tourism and climate change science, an examination of issues and actions in different countries and with different tourism consumers, and looks at the supply, adaptation and innovation of tourism products. Subjects examined are as diverse as: the European hotel sector; the North American cruise tourism industry; New Zealand youth hostels and campervans; Australia's tourism industry's GHG footprint; climate forecasts in the Baltic States; heat stress conditions in Spain; the Tourism Earth Lung initiative in Sri Lanka; and online discussions in cybercommunities. The different disciplinary perspectives presented in this volume include anthropology, climatology, climate change studies, economics, environmental sustainability, hospitality, policy and planning, psychology, scenario planning, and transport studies and contributions originate from eight developed countries across three continents.

[1]  H. Elsasser,et al.  Climate change as a threat to tourism in the Alps , 2002 .

[2]  Hans von Storch,et al.  Climate change in perspective , 2000, Nature.

[3]  Azar M. Khazian,et al.  Using normative social influence to promote conservation among hotel guests , 2008 .

[4]  Robert Sausen,et al.  Estimates of the Climate Response to Aircraft CO2 and NOx Emissions Scenarios , 2000 .

[5]  Richard G. Jones,et al.  An inter-comparison of regional climate models for Europe: model performance in present-day climate , 2007 .

[6]  P. Bohdanowicz European Hoteliers’ Environmental Attitudes , 2005 .

[7]  G. Cawley,et al.  Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/joc.1318 DOWNSCALING HEAVY PRECIPITATION OVER THE UNITED KINGDOM: A COMPARISON OF DYNAMICAL AND STATISTICAL METHODS AND THEIR FUTURE SCENARIOS , 2006 .

[8]  P. Jones,et al.  Representing Twentieth-Century Space–Time Climate Variability. Part I: Development of a 1961–90 Mean Monthly Terrestrial Climatology , 1999 .

[9]  B. Abegg,et al.  Impacts of Climate Change on Winter Tourism in the Swiss Alps , 1997 .

[10]  W. T. Pfeffer,et al.  Kinematic Constraints on Glacier Contributions to 21st-Century Sea-Level Rise , 2008, Science.

[11]  S. Solomon,et al.  Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[12]  Tzu-Ping Lin,et al.  Tourism climate and thermal comfort in Sun Moon Lake, Taiwan , 2008, International journal of biometeorology.

[13]  P. Forsyth,et al.  Economic Impacts of Inbound Tourism under Different Assumptions Regarding the Macroeconomy , 2000 .

[14]  Arthur P.J. Mol,et al.  Ecological modernisation theory in debate: A review , 2000 .

[15]  S. Oskamp A sustainable future for humanity? How can psychology help? , 2000 .

[16]  Robert Gifford,et al.  Psychology's essential role in alleviating the impacts of climate change. , 2008 .

[17]  S. Seneviratne,et al.  Predictability and uncertainty in a regional climate model , 2003 .

[18]  L. Preston,et al.  The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and Implications , 1995 .

[19]  R. Alley,et al.  Understanding Glacier Flow in Changing Times , 2008, Science.

[20]  G. Wall,et al.  Tourism and climate change: An international perspective , 1994 .

[21]  Lee Chapman,et al.  Transport and climate change: a review , 2007 .

[22]  Sabine L. Perch-Nielsen The vulnerability of beach tourism to climate change—an index approach , 2010 .

[23]  Jordan J. Louviere,et al.  Modelling consumer choice behaviour in space tourism , 2009 .

[24]  T. Cannon,et al.  Community level adaptation to climate change: The potential role of participatory community risk assessment , 2008 .

[25]  K. Smith Tourism and climate change , 1990 .

[26]  A. Juška,et al.  Resisting Marginalisation: The Rise of the Rural Community Movement in Lithuania , 2005 .

[27]  D. Simmons,et al.  Segmenting Tourists by their Travel Pattern for Insights into Achieving Energy Efficiency , 2003 .

[28]  Andreas Matzarakis,et al.  Weather- and climate-related information for tourism , 2006 .

[29]  Arthur P.J. Mol,et al.  Sociology, environment, and modernity: ecological modernization as a theory of social change. , 1992 .

[30]  M. Meinshausen,et al.  Missing the turn towards a low-emission path? , 2008 .

[31]  Daniel Scott,et al.  Climate change and the skiing industry in southern Ontario (Canada): exploring the importance of snowmaking as a technical adaptation , 2003 .

[32]  Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan,et al.  Strategic branding of destinations: a framework , 2009 .

[33]  D. Kirk Attitudes to environmental management held by a group of hotel managers in Edinburgh. , 1998 .

[34]  Piet Rietveld,et al.  Is Average Daily Travel Time Expenditure Constant? In Search of Explanations for an Increase in Average Travel Time , 2006 .

[35]  M. Munday,et al.  Exploring the Environmental Consequences of Tourism: A Satellite Account Approach , 2007 .

[36]  Keywan Riahi,et al.  Do recent emission trends imply higher emissions forever? , 2008 .

[37]  G. Hupkes THE LAW OF CONSTANT TRAVEL TIME AND TRIP-RATES , 1982 .

[38]  D. Dodman Blaming cities for climate change? An analysis of urban greenhouse gas emissions inventories , 2009 .

[39]  Andreas Schäfer,et al.  The global demand for motorized mobility , 1998 .

[40]  S. C. Rajan Climate Change Dilemma: Technology, Social Change or Both? An Examination of Long-Term Transport Policy Choices in the United States , 2006 .

[41]  C. Schär,et al.  Towards climate simulations at cloud-resolving scales , 2008 .

[42]  Anne Graham,et al.  Demand for leisure air travel and limits to growth , 2000 .

[43]  Paulina Bohdanowicz,et al.  Hotel Companies' Contribution to Improving the Quality of Life of Local Communities and the Well-Being of Their Employees , 2009 .

[44]  G. Dawson The Economic Science Fiction of Climate Change: A Free-Market Perspective on the Stern Review and the IPCC , 2008 .

[45]  Ina Meyer,et al.  Fuel Efficiency of the Austrian Passenger Vehicle Fleet , 2009 .

[46]  Thomas M. Parris,et al.  Accelerating Sustainable Development , 2005 .

[47]  F. Giorgi,et al.  Climate change hot‐spots , 2006 .

[48]  K. Pawlik The Psychology of Global Environmental Change: Some Basic Data and an Agenda for Cooperative International Research , 1991 .

[49]  A. Schäfer,et al.  The future mobility of the world population , 2000 .

[50]  Colin Hunter,et al.  Sustainable tourism as an adaptive paradigm , 1997 .

[51]  Jacinto F. Fabiosa,et al.  Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change , 2008, Science.

[52]  John F. B. Mitchell,et al.  Anthropogenic climate change for 1860 to 2100 simulated with the HadCM3 model under updated emissions scenarios , 2003 .

[53]  H. Mayer,et al.  Heat stress in Greece , 1997, International journal of biometeorology.

[54]  B. Prideaux The role of the transport system in destination development , 2000 .

[55]  Kurt Van Dender,et al.  Energy policy in transport and transport policy , 2009 .

[56]  Ian Joughin,et al.  Fracture Propagation to the Base of the Greenland Ice Sheet During Supraglacial Lake Drainage , 2008, Science.

[57]  N. Erdoğan,et al.  Environmental protection programs and conservation practices of hotels in Ankara, Turkey , 2007 .

[58]  C. Saunders,et al.  Trade Liberalisation and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Case of Dairying in the European Union and New Zealand , 2006 .

[59]  E. Stewart,et al.  Climate change, marine tourism, and sustainability in the Canadian Arctic: contributions from systems and complexity approaches. , 2007 .

[60]  Tony Jackson,et al.  Greening the Fife Economy: Ecological Modernization as a Pathway for Local Economic Development , 1997 .

[61]  Mark Van Vugt,et al.  Science Current Directions in Psychological Averting the Tragedy of the Commons : Using Social Psychological Science to Protect the Environment on Behalf Of: Association for Psychological Science , 2022 .

[62]  P. Wesley Schultz,et al.  Values and their Relationship to Environmental Concern and Conservation Behavior , 2005 .

[63]  J. E. Green,et al.  Civil aviation and the environmental challenge , 2003, The Aeronautical Journal (1968).

[64]  Stuart L. Esrock,et al.  Social responsibility and corporate web pages: Self-presentation or agenda-setting? , 1998 .

[65]  C. Freitas Tourism climatology: evaluating environmental information for decision making and business planning in the recreation and tourism sector , 2003, International journal of biometeorology.

[66]  R. Rosenberg,et al.  Spreading Dead Zones and Consequences for Marine Ecosystems , 2008, Science.

[67]  Mark S. Granovetter Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness , 1985, American Journal of Sociology.

[68]  Björn Andersson,et al.  Global energy scenarios meeting stringent CO2 constraints--cost-effective fuel choices in the transportation sector , 2003 .

[69]  S. Gössling,et al.  Swedish Tourism and Climate Change Mitigation: An Emerging Conflict? , 2008 .

[70]  David Uzzell,et al.  THE PSYCHO-SPATIAL DIMENSION OF GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS , 2000 .

[71]  H. Mayer,et al.  Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments—application of the RayMan model , 2007, International journal of biometeorology.

[72]  P. Bohdanowicz,et al.  Corporate Social Responsibility in Hospitality: Issues and Implications. A Case Study of Scandic , 2008 .

[73]  S. Nicholls,et al.  Implications of Global Climate Change for Tourism Flows and Seasonality , 2007 .

[74]  Alice Bows,et al.  Reframing the climate change challenge in light of post-2000 emission trends , 2008, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[75]  Susanne Becken,et al.  Analysing International Tourist Flows to Estimate Energy Use Associated with Air Travel , 2002 .

[76]  R. Tol,et al.  The impact of climate change on tourism in Germany, the UK and Ireland: a simulation study , 2007 .

[77]  P. Heuberger,et al.  Conditional probabilistic estimates of 21st century greenhouse gas emissions based on the storylines of the IPCC-SRES scenarios , 2008 .

[78]  Noah J. Goldstein,et al.  A Room with a Viewpoint: Using Social Norms to Motivate Environmental Conservation in Hotels , 2008 .

[79]  Eric Rignot,et al.  Rapid submarine melting of the calving faces of West Greenland glaciers , 2010 .

[80]  M. Boykoff,et al.  Climate change and journalistic norms: A case-study of US mass-media coverage , 2007 .

[81]  Jackie Clarke,et al.  A framework of approaches to sustainable tourism. , 1997 .

[82]  H. Mayer,et al.  Applications of a universal thermal index: physiological equivalent temperature , 1999, International journal of biometeorology.

[83]  G. Fleury-Bahi Environmental Risk: Perception and Target with Local versus Global Evaluation , 2008, Psychological reports.

[84]  Douglas G. Pearce,et al.  Distribution channels for New Zealand outbound tourism , 2008 .

[85]  D. Simmons,et al.  Energy consumption patterns in the accommodation sector—the New Zealand case ☆ , 2001 .

[86]  Ian M. Howat,et al.  Large-scale changes in Greenland outlet glacier dynamics triggered at the terminus. , 2009 .

[87]  Joeri Rogelj,et al.  Halfway to Copenhagen, no way to 2 °C , 2009 .

[88]  R. Tol,et al.  Effects of climate change on international tourism , 2005 .

[89]  Peter Forsyth,et al.  Evaluating tourism's economic effects: new and old approaches , 2004 .

[90]  Roberto Roson,et al.  A General Equilibrium Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on Tourism , 2004 .

[91]  Susanne Becken,et al.  Understanding energy consumption patterns of tourist attractions and activities in New Zealand , 2002 .

[92]  N. Meinshausen,et al.  Warming caused by cumulative carbon emissions towards the trillionth tonne , 2009, Nature.

[93]  Salvatore Bimonte,et al.  The “tragedy of tourism resources” as the outcome of a strategic game: A new analytical framework , 2008 .

[94]  David Maddison,et al.  In Search of Warmer Climates? The Impact of Climate Change on Flows of British Tourists , 2001 .

[95]  Ning Wang,et al.  Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience , 1999 .

[96]  D. Simmons,et al.  Using the concept of yield to assess the sustainability of different tourist types , 2008 .

[97]  M. van vugt,et al.  Who Cares about the Environmental Impact of Cars? , 2004 .

[98]  L. Desforges Traveling the world: Identity and Travel Biography , 2000 .

[99]  Gregory N. Taff Conflict between Global and Local Land-Use Values in Latvia's Gauja National Park , 2005 .

[100]  T. Downing,et al.  Distributional aspects of climate change impacts , 2004 .

[101]  Andreas Schäfer,et al.  Historical and future trends in aircraft performance, cost, and emissions , 2001 .

[102]  David S. Lee,et al.  Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century , 2009, Atmospheric Environment.

[103]  I. Velicogna Increasing rates of ice mass loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets revealed by GRACE , 2009 .

[104]  P. Peeters,et al.  Tourism travel under climate change mitigation constraints , 2010 .

[105]  David Maddison,et al.  Climate change and international tourism: a simulation study , 2005 .

[106]  Richard de Dear,et al.  A field study of thermal comfort in outdoor and semi-outdoor environments in subtropical Sydney Australia , 2003 .

[107]  Gretchen C. Daily,et al.  Integrity and isolation of Costa Rica's national parks and biological reserves: examining the dynamics of land-cover change , 2003 .

[108]  A case study of Hilton Environmental Reporting as a tool of corporate social responsibility. , 2007 .

[109]  Richard B. Norgaard,et al.  Metaphors we might survive by , 1995 .

[110]  J. Nicolau,et al.  The influence of distance and prices on the choice of tourist destinations: the moderating role of motivations. , 2006 .

[111]  T. Patterson,et al.  The eco-efficiency of tourism. , 2005 .

[112]  I. Schumacher The dynamics of environmentalism and the environment , 2009 .

[113]  F. Giorgi,et al.  Introduction to special section : Regional climate modeling revisited , 1999 .

[114]  J. Patz,et al.  Impact of regional climate change on human health , 2005, Nature.

[115]  B. Smit,et al.  Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability , 2006 .

[116]  N. E. Davis AN OPTIMUM SUMMER WEATHER INDEX , 1968 .

[117]  E. e Reality of rural landscape symbolism in the formation of a post-Soviet, postmodern Latvian identity , 1999 .

[118]  D. Scott,et al.  Climate change and the distribution of climatic resources for tourism in North America. , 2004 .

[119]  M. Porter,et al.  Strategy and society: the link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility. , 2006, Harvard business review.

[120]  P. Jones,et al.  Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed temperature changes: A new data set from 1850 , 2006 .

[121]  U. McMahon-Beattie,et al.  Oil Depletion: What does this mean for Scottish tourism? , 2007 .

[122]  H. Jenkins,et al.  Corporate social responsibility in the mining industry: Exploring trends in social and environmental disclosure , 2006 .

[123]  Jesper Heile Christensen,et al.  Daily precipitation statistics in regional climate models: Evaluation and intercomparison for the European Alps , 2003 .

[124]  John F. B. Mitchell,et al.  The next generation of scenarios for climate change research and assessment , 2010, Nature.

[125]  Leonard A. Smith,et al.  Uncertainty in predictions of the climate response to rising levels of greenhouse gases , 2005, Nature.

[126]  F. Okumus,et al.  Corporate social responsibility: what are top hotel companies reporting? , 2007 .

[127]  R. Sharpley Tourism and Sustainable Development: Exploring the Theoretical Divide , 2000 .

[128]  Shanyang Zhao,et al.  Toward a Taxonomy of Copresence , 2003, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[129]  Peter Belobaba,et al.  Cost convergence in the US airline industry: An analysis of unit costs 1995-2006 , 2008 .

[130]  E. Cohen A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences , 1979 .

[131]  M. Hodson,et al.  Urban ecological security : the new urban paradigm , 2007 .

[132]  I. Smith,et al.  Carbon emission offsets for aviation-generated emissions due to international travel to and from New Zealand , 2009 .

[133]  S. Meis,et al.  Progress in Tourism Satellite Account Implementation and Development , 2006 .

[134]  K. Simpson Strategic Planning and Community Involvement as Contributors to Sustainable Tourism Development , 2001 .

[135]  C. Michael Hall,et al.  Uncertainties in Predicting Tourist Flows Under Scenarios of Climate Change , 2006 .

[136]  S. Becken How Tourists and Tourism Experts Perceive Climate Change and Carbon-offsetting Schemes , 2004 .

[137]  B. Worthington Riding the 'J' Curve—Tourism and Successful Transition in Estonia? , 2001 .

[138]  J. Urry Mobility and Proximity , 2002 .

[139]  A. Matzarakis,et al.  The bioclimatological leaflet as a means conveying climatological information to tourists and the tourism industry , 2009, International journal of biometeorology.

[140]  O. Vistad,et al.  National parks in Lithuania: Old environment in a new democracy , 2002 .

[141]  Ian Joughin,et al.  Seasonal Speedup Along the Western Flank of the Greenland Ice Sheet , 2008, Science.

[142]  D. Levinson,et al.  Activity, Travel, and the Allocation of Time , 1995 .

[143]  Andreas Wittmer,et al.  What is driving the continued growth in demand for air travel? Customer value of air transport , 2007 .

[144]  Wietze Lise,et al.  Impact of Climate on Tourist Demand , 2001 .

[145]  S. Schneider,et al.  Emissions pathways, climate change, and impacts on California. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[146]  P. Mokhtarian,et al.  TTB or not TTB, that is the question: a review and analysis of the empirical literature on travel time (and money) budgets , 2004 .

[147]  Rachel Dodds,et al.  Canada's Tourism Industry—Mitigating the Effects of Climate Change: A Lot of Concern but Little Action , 2009 .

[148]  C. Rosenzweig,et al.  Potential impact of climate change on world food supply , 1994, Nature.

[149]  Leigh A. Stearns,et al.  Increased flow speed on a large East Antarctic outlet glacier caused by subglacial floods , 2008 .

[150]  D. Scott,et al.  Can tourism deliver its “aspirational” greenhouse gas emission reduction targets? , 2010 .

[151]  David G. Victor,et al.  Global passenger travel: implications for carbon dioxide emissions , 1999 .

[152]  Peter Sheehan,et al.  The new global growth path: implications for climate change analysis and policy , 2008 .

[153]  Sebastian Macmillan,et al.  The development of environmental initiatives in tourism: responses from the London hotel sector , 1999 .

[154]  Martin Jänicke,et al.  Ecological modernisation: new perspectives , 2008 .

[155]  C. Vlek,et al.  Psychologists can do much to support sustainable development , 2003 .

[156]  P. Höppe,et al.  The physiological equivalent temperature – a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of the thermal environment , 1999, International journal of biometeorology.

[157]  John Holmberg,et al.  Better performance or lower fuel consumption: Technological development in the Swedish new car fleet 1975-2002 , 2008 .

[158]  G. Hardin,et al.  The Tragedy of the Commons , 1968, Green Planet Blues.

[159]  M. Clarkson A Stakeholder Framework for Analyzing and Evaluating Corporate Social Performance , 1995 .

[160]  A. Elson The Emergence of a Regional Financial Architecture in Asia , 2006 .

[161]  D. Kirk Environmental management in hotels , 1995 .

[162]  Paul Peeters,et al.  Voluntary Carbon Offsetting Schemes for Aviation: Efficiency, Credibility and Sustainable Tourism , 2007 .

[163]  Roy E. Cordato Toward an austrian theory of environmental economics , 2004 .

[164]  Z. Mieczkowski,et al.  THE TOURISM CLIMATIC INDEX: A METHOD OF EVALUATING WORLD CLIMATES FOR TOURISM , 1985 .

[165]  J. Yackel,et al.  Sea Ice in Canada's Arctic: Implications for Cruise Tourism , 2009 .

[166]  M. Manning,et al.  The physical science behind climate change. , 2007, Scientific American.

[167]  J. M. Reilly,et al.  Temperature increase of 21st century mitigation scenarios , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[168]  Michel G.J. den Elzen,et al.  Postponing emission reductions from 2020 to 2030 increases climate risks and long-term costs , 2010 .

[169]  M. Lamers,et al.  Estimating the Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Antarctic Tourism , 2007 .

[170]  V. V. Gouveia,et al.  Valores humanos como explicadores de atitudes ambientais e intenção de comportamento pró-ambiental , 2006 .

[171]  Florian G. Kaiser,et al.  Temporal pessimism and spatial optimism in environmental assessments: An 18-nation study , 2009 .

[172]  Stewart Lewis,et al.  Reputation and corporate responsibility , 2003 .

[173]  A. Gouldson,et al.  Environmental Policy and Industrial Innovation: Integrating Environment and Economy Through Ecological Modernisation , 2000, The Ecological Modernisation Reader.

[174]  Murray Patterson,et al.  Measuring National Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Tourism as a Key Step Towards Achieving Sustainable Tourism , 2006 .

[175]  M. Rummukainen,et al.  Evaluating the performance and utility of regional climate models: the PRUDENCE project , 2007 .

[176]  O. Honnay,et al.  The role of fragment area and isolation in the conservation of heathland species , 2005 .

[177]  Joeri Rogelj,et al.  Copenhagen Accord pledges are paltry , 2010, Nature.

[178]  H. Magd Management attitudes and perceptions of older employees in hospitality management , 2003 .

[179]  Linda Steg,et al.  ⊡ Human Behavior and Environmental Sustainability: Problems, Driving Forces, and Research Topics , 2007 .

[180]  T. Milfont,et al.  Time perspective and values: An exploratory study of their relations to environmental attitudes , 2006 .

[181]  M. Agnew,et al.  Potential Impacts of Climate Change on International Tourism , 2001 .

[182]  John Polglaze,et al.  Can we always ignore ship-generated food waste? , 2003, Marine pollution bulletin.

[183]  Theodoros Zachariadis,et al.  On the baseline evolution of automobile fuel economy in Europe , 2006 .

[184]  Brian Ó Gallachóir,et al.  How private car purchasing trends offset efficiency gains and the successful energy policy response , 2009 .

[185]  Erik Cohen,et al.  Authenticity and commoditization in tourism. , 1988 .

[186]  E. Weber Experience-Based and Description-Based Perceptions of Long-Term Risk: Why Global Warming does not Scare us (Yet) , 2006 .

[187]  P. Jones,et al.  Representing Twentieth-Century Space-Time Climate Variability. Part II: Development of 1901-96 Monthly Grids of Terrestrial Surface Climate , 2000 .

[188]  O. Harlfinger Holiday bioclimatology: a study of Palma de Majorca, Spain , 1991 .

[189]  D. Simmons,et al.  A Quasi-experimental Method for Testing the Effectiveness of Ecolabel Promotion , 2005 .

[190]  D. Maccannell Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of Social Space in Tourist Settings , 1973, American Journal of Sociology.

[191]  P. Fergusson Summer Weather at the English Seaside , 1964 .

[192]  J. Ceron,et al.  Tourism and Climate Change: Proposals for a Research Agenda , 2006 .

[193]  G Charles Dismukes,et al.  Aquatic phototrophs: efficient alternatives to land-based crops for biofuels. , 2008, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[194]  M. Breiling,et al.  The impact of global warming on winter tourism and skiing: a regionalised model for Austrian snow conditions , 1999 .

[195]  R. Ewing Is Los Angeles-Style Sprawl Desirable? , 1997 .

[196]  Michel G.J. den Elzen,et al.  Meeting radiative forcing targets under delayed participation , 2009 .

[197]  David J. Currie,et al.  Changing Species Richness and Composition in Canadian National Parks , 2000 .

[198]  P. Slovic Perception of risk. , 1987, Science.

[199]  V. Azarya Globalization and International Tourism in Developing Countries: Marginality as a Commercial Commodity , 2004 .

[200]  P. Forsyth,et al.  Inter-Industry Effects of Tourism Growth: Implications for Destination Managers , 2003 .

[201]  The charge of technology , 2008, Nature.

[202]  Marylyn Carrigan,et al.  Do consumers really care about corporate responsibility? Highlighting the attitude—behaviour gap , 2000 .

[203]  C. Schott Proactive crises management tools: ecolabel and green globe 21 experiences from New Zealand , 2006 .

[204]  Pier Luigi Vidale,et al.  Evaluation of water and energy budgets in regional climate models applied over Europe , 2004 .