Transcranial and Deep Brain Stimulation Approaches as Treatment for Depression

Given that a considerable portion of depressed patients does not respond to or remit during pharmacotherapy, there is increasing interest in non-pharmacological strategies to treat depressive disorders. Several brain stimulation approaches are currently being investigated as novel therapeutic interventions beside electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), a prototypic method in this field with proven effectiveness. These neurostimulation methods include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), magnetic seizure therapy (MST), vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), deep brain stimulation (DBS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). It is via different neuroanatomically defined “windows” that the various approaches access the neuronal networks showing an altered function in depression. Also, the methods vary regarding their degree of invasiveness. One or the other method may finally achieve antidepressant effectiveness with minimized side effects and constitute a new effective treatment for major depression.

[1]  Z. Nahas,et al.  Changes in prefrontal cortex and paralimbic activity in depression following two weeks of daily left prefrontal TMS. , 1999, The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[2]  V. Sturm,et al.  Mood improvement after deep brain stimulation of the internal globus pallidus for tardive dyskinesia in a patient suffering from major depression. , 2007, Journal of psychiatric research.

[3]  Klaus P. Ebmeier,et al.  Factors modifying the efficacy of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression: a review. , 2006, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[4]  H. Möller,et al.  Striatal dopamine release after prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in major depression: preliminary results of a dynamic [123I] IBZM SPECT study. , 2006, Journal of psychiatric research.

[5]  M. Nitsche,et al.  After-effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on cortical spreading depression , 2006, Neuroscience Letters.

[6]  L. Carpenter.  Neurostimulation in resistant depression , 2006, Journal of psychopharmacology.

[7]  Sergio P. Rigonatti,et al.  Treatment of major depression with transcranial direct current stimulation. , 2006, Bipolar disorders.

[8]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  A Controlled Clinical Trial of Cathodal DC Polarization in Patients with Refractory Epilepsy , 2006, Epilepsia.

[9]  J. Fermanian,et al.  A double-blind sham controlled study of right prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS): Therapeutic and cognitive effect in medication free unipolar depression during 4 weeks , 2006, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry.

[10]  J. Neumaier,et al.  A Controlled Study of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Medication-Resistant Major Depression , 2006, Biological Psychiatry.

[11]  E. Smeraldi,et al.  Does rTMS hasten the response to escitalopram, sertraline, or venlafaxine in patients with major depressive disorder? A double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled trial. , 2005, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[12]  D. Liebetanz,et al.  Modulating parameters of excitability during and after transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex , 2005, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[13]  Barry R. Rittberg,et al.  Vagus Nerve Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Randomized, Controlled Acute Phase Trial , 2005, Biological Psychiatry.

[14]  Barry R. Rittberg,et al.  A One-Year Comparison of Vagus Nerve Stimulation with Treatment as Usual for Treatment-Resistant Depression , 2005, Biological Psychiatry.

[15]  Barry R. Rittberg,et al.  Effects of 12 Months of Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Naturalistic Study , 2005, Biological Psychiatry.

[16]  Sergio P. Rigonatti,et al.  Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory , 2005, Experimental Brain Research.

[17]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  How does transcranial DC stimulation of the primary motor cortex alter regional neuronal activity in the human brain? , 2005, The European journal of neuroscience.

[18]  A. Lozano,et al.  Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression , 2005, Neuron.

[19]  L. Cohen,et al.  Effects of non-invasive cortical stimulation on skilled motor function in chronic stroke. , 2005, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[20]  J. Couturier,et al.  Efficacy of rapid-rate repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. , 2005, Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN.

[21]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Preconditioning with transcranial direct current stimulation sensitizes the motor cortex to rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation and controls the direction of after-effects , 2004, Biological Psychiatry.

[22]  A. Quartarone,et al.  Long lasting effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on motor imagery , 2004, Neuroreport.

[23]  J. Jefferys,et al.  Effects of uniform extracellular DC electric fields on excitability in rat hippocampal slices in vitro , 2004, The Journal of physiology.

[24]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Absence of histological lesions in primate models of ECT and magnetic seizure therapy. , 2004, The American journal of psychiatry.

[25]  H. Hinterhuber,et al.  No benefit derived from repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression: a prospective, single centre, randomised, double blind, sham controlled “add on” trial , 2004, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

[26]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Safety criteria for transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in humans , 2003, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[27]  J. Lorberbaum,et al.  A review of functional neuroimaging studies of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). , 2003, Journal of psychiatric research.

[28]  P. Fitzgerald,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. , 2003, Archives of general psychiatry.

[29]  Bruce Luber,et al.  Safety and Feasibility of Magnetic Seizure Therapy (MST) in Major Depression: Randomized Within-Subject Comparison with Electroconvulsive Therapy , 2003, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[30]  T. Bolwig.  Putative Common Pathways in Therapeutic Brain Stimulation for Affective Disorders , 2003, CNS Spectrums.

[31]  H. Sackeim,et al.  New Developments in Electroconvulsive Therapy and Magnetic Seizure Therapy , 2003, CNS Spectrums.

[32]  Björn Wahlund,et al.  ECT of Major Depressed Patients in Relation to Biological and Clinical Variables: A Brief Overview , 2003, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[33]  P. Janicak,et al.  Neurocognitive effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in severe major depression , 2003, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[34]  A. Gershon,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression. , 2003, The American journal of psychiatry.

[35]  S. Rauch,et al.  Neurosurgery for intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression: critical issues. , 2003, Neurosurgery clinics of North America.

[36]  John R. Geddes,et al.  Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2003, The Lancet.

[37]  J. Krystal,et al.  Increased cortical GABA concentrations in depressed patients receiving ECT. , 2003, The American journal of psychiatry.

[38]  A. Lozano,et al.  Stereotactic Neurosurgery for Movement Disorders , 2003, Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques.

[39]  Frank Padberg,et al.  Plasma Concentrations of Neuroactive Steroids before and after Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) in Major Depression , 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[40]  H. Möller,et al.  Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) in Major Depression: Relation between Efficacy and Stimulation Intensity , 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[41]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Pharmacological approach to the mechanisms of transcranial DC-stimulation-induced after-effects of human motor cortex excitability. , 2002, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[42]  Steven C Schachter,et al.  Vagus nerve stimulation therapy summary: Five years after FDA approval , 2002, Neurology.

[43]  M. George,et al.  Meta-Analysis of Left Prefrontal Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) to Treat Depression , 2002, Journal of psychiatric practice.

[44]  Klaus P. Ebmeier,et al.  Left dorso-lateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation affects cortical excitability and functional connectivity, but does not impair cognition in major depression , 2002, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry.

[45]  S. Paradiso,et al.  Improved executive functioning following repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation , 2002, Neurology.

[46]  P. Zwanzger,et al.  Occurrence of delusions during repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in major depression , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[47]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Neuropsychiatric applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation: a meta analysis. , 2002, The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology.

[48]  H. Möller,et al.  Switch to mania after slow rTMS of the right prefrontal cortex. , 2002, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[49]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for major depressive episodes: one year outcomes , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[50]  Cole A. Giller,et al.  Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS™) for Treatment-Resistant Depression: Efficacy, Side Effects, and Predictors of Outcome , 2001, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[51]  J. Kulisevsky,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation for treating depression. , 2001, The Cochrane database of systematic reviews.

[52]  M. Petrides,et al.  Cortico‐cortical connectivity of the human mid‐dorsolateral frontal cortex and its modulation by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation , 2001 .

[53]  M. Könönen,et al.  SPECT and neuropsychological performance in severe depression treated with ECT. , 2001, Journal of affective disorders.

[54]  Sarah H Lisanby,et al.  Therapeutic application of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: a review , 2001, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[55]  C. Schönfeldt-Lecuona,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation in therapy studies: examination of the reliability of “standard” coil positioning by neuronavigation , 2001, Biological Psychiatry.

[56]  M. Keck,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation as a therapeutic tool in psychiatry: what do we know about the neurobiological mechanisms? , 2001, European Psychiatry.

[57]  S. Gandevia,et al.  Effects of a 2- to 4-week course of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on neuropsychologic functioning, electroencephalogram, and auditory threshold in depressed patients , 2001, Biological Psychiatry.

[58]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Decreased regional brain metabolism after ect. , 2001, The American journal of psychiatry.

[59]  B Luber,et al.  Deliberate seizure induction with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in nonhuman primates. , 2001, Archives of general psychiatry.

[60]  R. Post,et al.  Opposite effects of high and low frequency rTMS on regional brain activity in depressed patients , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[61]  J. Lorberbaum,et al.  Lack of Significant Changes on Magnetic Resonance Scans Before and After 2 Weeks of Daily Left Prefrontal Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Depression , 2000, The journal of ECT.

[62]  Ziad Nahas,et al.  A controlled trial of daily left prefrontal cortex TMS for treating depression , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[63]  P. Jerabek,et al.  Regional metabolic effects of fluoxetine in major depression: serial changes and relationship to clinical response , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[64]  A. Zis,et al.  A Preliminary Study of the Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy on Regional Brain Glucose Metabolism in Patients with Major Depression , 2000, The journal of ECT.

[65]  E M Wassermann,et al.  Cognitive effects of 1- and 20-hertz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression: preliminary report. , 2000, Neuropsychiatry, neuropsychology, and behavioral neurology.

[66]  P. Dannon,et al.  Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is as effective as electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of nondelusional major depressive disorder: an open study , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[67]  Benjamin D. Greenberg,et al.  Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in pharmacotherapy-refractory major depression: comparative study of fast, slow and sham rTMS , 1999, Psychiatry Research.

[68]  D. Koren,et al.  Right prefrontal slow repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in schizophrenia: a double-blind sham- controlled pilot study , 1999, Biological Psychiatry.

[69]  Kenneth M Heilman,et al.  Effects of left frontal transcranial magnetic stimulation on depressed mood, cognition, and corticomotor threshold , 1999, Biological Psychiatry.

[70]  S H Lisanby,et al.  Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Applications in Neuropsychiatry , 1999 .

[71]  H. Sackeim.  The anticonvulsant hypothesis of the mechanisms of action of ECT: current status. , 1999, The journal of ECT.

[72]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in drug-resistant depression , 1996, The Lancet.

[73]  M. Gorfine,et al.  Increased cerebral blood flow in depressed patients responding to electroconvulsive therapy. , 1996, Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine.

[74]  H Scheich,et al.  LTD and LTP induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation in auditory cortex , 1996, Neuroreport.

[75]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Effects of stimulus intensity and electrode placement on the efficacy and cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. , 1993, The New England journal of medicine.

[76]  J. Mazziotta,et al.  Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. , 1989, Archives of general psychiatry.

[77]  A. Barker,et al.  NON-INVASIVE MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF HUMAN MOTOR CORTEX , 1985, The Lancet.

[78]  P. Fitzgerald,et al.  A randomized, controlled trial of sequential bilateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. , 2006, The American journal of psychiatry.

[79]  C. Schönfeldt-Lecuona,et al.  Repetitive Transkranielle Magnetstimulation , 2005, Nervenheilkunde.

[80]  H. Möller,et al.  Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation , 2003, CNS drugs.

[81]  W. Drevets.  Functional anatomical abnormalities in limbic and prefrontal cortical structures in major depression. , 2000, Progress in brain research.

[82]  Z. Nahas,et al.  Structural and functional neuroimaging of electroconvulsive therapy and transcranial magnetic stimulation , 2000, Depression and anxiety.

[83]  M Hallett,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a tool for mapping the central nervous system. , 1996, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology. Supplement.

[84]  Klaus P. Ebmeier,et al.  Short-term effects of electroconvulsive treatment on the uptake of99mTc-Exametazime into brain in major depression shown with single photon emission tomography , 1994 .