Dealing with fuel contaminants in biogas-fed solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) plants: Degradation of catalytic and electro-catalytic active surfaces and related gas purification methods

Abstract Fuel cell and hydrogen technologies are re-gaining momentum in a number of sectors including industrial, tertiary and residential ones. Integrated biogas fuel cell plants in wastewater treatment plants and other bioenergy recovery plants are nowadays on the verge of becoming a clear opportunity for the market entry of high-temperature fuel cells in distributed generation (power production from a few kW to the MW scale). High-temperature fuel cell technologies like molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are especially fit to operate with carbon fuels due to their (direct or indirect) internal reforming capability. Especially, systems based on SOFC technology show the highest conversion efficiency of gaseous carbon fuels (e.g., natural gas, digester gas, and biomass-derived syngas) into electricity when compared to engines or gas turbines. Also, lower CO 2 emissions and ultra-low emissions of atmospheric contaminants (SO X , CO, VOC, especially NO X ) are generated per unit of electricity output. Nonetheless, stringent requirements apply regarding fuel purity. The presence of contaminants within the anode fuel stream, even at trace levels (sometimes ppb levels) can reduce the lifetime of key components like the fuel cell stack and reformer. In this work, we review the complex matrix (typology and amount) of different contaminants that is found in different biogas types (anaerobic digestion gas and landfill gas). We analyze the impact of contaminants on the fuel reformer and the SOFC stack to identify the threshold limits of the fuel cell system towards specific contaminants. Finally, technological solutions and related adsorbent materials to remove contaminants in a dedicated clean-up unit upstream of the fuel cell plant are also reviewed.

[1]  Jack Winnick,et al.  Sulfation of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Anode , 1989 .

[2]  S. Adhikari,et al.  Hydrogen production from biogas reforming and the effect of H2S on CH4 conversion , 2014 .

[3]  Kazunari Sasaki,et al.  Poisoning of SOFC anodes by various fuel impurities , 2008 .

[4]  S. Silvestri,et al.  Evaluation of the Wheeler-Jonas parameters for biogas trace compounds removal with activated carbons , 2016 .

[5]  A. Hagen,et al.  Sulfur Poisoning of SOFC Anodes: Effect of Overpotential on Long-Term Degradation , 2014 .

[6]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  Durability of anode supported Solid Oxides Fuel Cells (SOFC) under direct dry-reforming of methane , 2013 .

[7]  Maciej Haranczyk,et al.  pyIAST: Ideal adsorbed solution theory (IAST) Python package , 2016, Comput. Phys. Commun..

[8]  Suttichai Assabumrungrat,et al.  Catalytic steam reforming of ethane and propane over CeO2-doped Ni/Al2O3 at SOFC temperature: Improvement of resistance toward carbon formation by the redox property of doping CeO2 , 2006 .

[9]  François Maréchal,et al.  Energy balance model of a SOFC cogenerator operated with biogas , 2003 .

[10]  S. Assabumrungrat,et al.  Effects of humidity, O2, and CO2 on H2S adsorption onto upgraded and KOH impregnated activated carbons , 2014 .

[11]  L. Barelli,et al.  Experimental investigation of SO2 poisoning in a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operating in CCS configuration , 2016 .

[12]  M. Sánchez-Polo,et al.  Biogas upgrading: optimal activated carbon properties for siloxane removal. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[13]  W. E. Marshall,et al.  Freundlich adsorption isotherms of agricultural by-product-based powdered activated carbons in a geosmin-water system. , 2002, Bioresource technology.

[14]  Meilin Liu,et al.  Sulfur Poisoning and Regeneration of Ni-Based Anodes in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells , 2007 .

[15]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Design and Balance-of-Plant of a Demonstration Plant With a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Fed by Biogas From Waste-Water and Exhaust Carbon Recycling for Algae GrowthASME 2013 11th International Conference on Fuel Cell Science, Engineering and Technology , 2013 .

[16]  E. J. Erekson,et al.  Sulfur poisoning of nickel methanation catalysts: II. Effects of H2S concentration, CO and H2O partial pressures and temperature on reactivation rates , 1983 .

[17]  A. Chakraborty,et al.  An adsorption isotherm equation for multi-types adsorption with thermodynamic correctness , 2014 .

[18]  Meilin Liu,et al.  Characterization of sulfur poisoning of Ni–YSZ anodes for solid oxide fuel cells using in situ Raman microspectroscopy , 2007 .

[19]  A. Sbrilli,et al.  Mass and energy balances of sludge processing in reference and upgraded wastewater treatment plants , 2015, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[20]  Anita M. Katti,et al.  Fundamentals of Preparative and Nonlinear Chromatography , 1994 .

[21]  I. Díaz,et al.  Economic analysis of microaerobic removal of H2S from biogas in full-scale sludge digesters. , 2015, Bioresource technology.

[22]  F. Biasioli,et al.  Proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry as a rapid inline tool for filter efficiency of activated charcoal in support of the development of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells fueled with biogas , 2015 .

[23]  Chunshan Song,et al.  Sulfur poisoning of CeO2–Al2O3-supported mono- and bi-metallic Ni and Rh catalysts in steam reforming of liquid hydrocarbons at low and high temperatures , 2010 .

[24]  Anders Rasmuson,et al.  Exact solution of a model for diffusion in particles and longitudinal dispersion in packed beds , 1980 .

[25]  Franco Biasioli,et al.  Direct-injection mass spectrometry adds the time dimension to (B)VOC analysis , 2011 .

[26]  Nicolas Abatzoglou,et al.  A review of biogas purification processes , 2009 .

[27]  F. Osorio,et al.  Biogas purification from anaerobic digestion in a wastewater treatment plant for biofuel production , 2009 .

[28]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  Optimization of dry reforming of methane over Ni/YSZ anodes for solid oxide fuel cells , 2014 .

[29]  Meilin Liu,et al.  From Ni-YSZ to sulfur-tolerant anode materials for SOFCs: electrochemical behavior, in situ characterization, modeling, and future perspectives , 2011, Energy & Environmental Science.

[30]  K. Sasaki,et al.  Feasibility of direct-biogas SOFC , 2008 .

[31]  J. Herle,et al.  Solid oxide fuel cell anode degradation by the effect of hydrogen chloride in stack and single cell environments , 2016 .

[32]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Energy and economic performance of novel integrated gasifier fuel cell (IGFC) cycles with carbon capture , 2014 .

[33]  Berrin Tansel,et al.  Effect of persistent trace compounds in landfill gas on engine performance during energy recovery: a case study. , 2013, Waste management.

[34]  Ermete Antolini,et al.  The stability of molten carbonate fuel cell electrodes: A review of recent improvements , 2011 .

[35]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Design and Balance-of-Plant of a Demonstration Plant With a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Fed by Biogas From Waste-Water and Exhaust Carbon Recycling for Algae Growth , 2013 .

[36]  Meilin Liu,et al.  Influence of cell voltage and current on sulfur poisoning behavior of solid oxide fuel cells , 2007 .

[37]  M. Sanati,et al.  Effect of fly ash and H2S on a Ni-based catalyst for the upgrading of a biomass-generated gas , 2008 .

[38]  B. Tansel,et al.  Emergence and fate of cyclic volatile polydimethylsiloxanes (D4, D5) in municipal waste streams: release mechanisms, partitioning and persistence in air, water, soil and sediments. , 2014, The Science of the total environment.

[39]  Suttichai Assabumrungrat,et al.  Role and advantages of H2S in catalytic steam reforming over nanoscale CeO2-based catalysts , 2010 .

[40]  F. Haghighat,et al.  Predicting gas-phase air-cleaning system efficiency at low concentration using high concentration results: Development of a framework , 2013 .

[41]  Shudong Wang,et al.  Experimental and simulation study of hydrogen sulfide adsorption on impregnated activated carbon under anaerobic conditions. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[42]  E. Ivers-Tiffée,et al.  Sulfur Poisoning of Anode‐Supported SOFCs under Reformate Operation , 2013 .

[43]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Steam Reforming and Graphite Formation on Ni Catalysts , 2002 .

[44]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Techno-economic and policy requirements for the market-entry of the fuel cell micro-CHP system in the residential sector , 2015 .

[45]  S. Kakaç,et al.  A review of numerical modeling of solid oxide fuel cells , 2007 .

[46]  Bernhard Tjaden,et al.  Small-Scale Biogas-SOFC Plant: Technical Analysis and Assessment of Different Fuel Reforming Options , 2014 .

[47]  Michael Krennerich.  Ernährungs- und Landwirtschaftsorganisation der Vereinten Nationen (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations/FAO) , 1995 .

[48]  Shabbir Ahmed,et al.  Fuel quality issues with biogas energy – An economic analysis for a stationary fuel cell system , 2012 .

[49]  F. Biasioli,et al.  Biogas trace compound removal with ashes using proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry as innovative detection tool , 2016 .

[50]  Hermann Hofbauer,et al.  Experimental Study of Model Biogas Catalytic Steam Reforming: 1. Thermodynamic Optimization , 2008 .

[51]  S. Yaşyerli,et al.  Activity and stability enhancement of Ni-MCM-41 catalysts by Rh incorporation for hydrogen from dry reforming of methane , 2010 .

[52]  M. Cali,et al.  Methane-free biogas for direct feeding of solid oxide fuel cells , 2010 .

[53]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Techno-economic analysis of PEMFC and SOFC micro-CHP fuel cell systems for the residential sector , 2015 .

[54]  O. Deutschmann,et al.  Methane reforming kinetics within a Ni–YSZ SOFC anode support , 2005 .

[55]  C. Valderrama,et al.  Biogas deep clean-up based on adsorption technologies for solid oxide fuel cell applications , 2014 .

[56]  L. P. Didenko,et al.  Steam reforming of methane mixtures with ethylene over an industrial nickel catalyst , 2008 .

[57]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Solid oxide fuel cell anode degradation by the effect of siloxanes , 2015 .

[58]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Microstructural characterization of solid oxide fuel cell electrodes by image analysis technique , 2009 .

[59]  Magali Ferrandon,et al.  Catalytic Steam Reforming of Biogas – Effects of Feed Composition and Operating Conditions , 2015 .

[60]  R. Gemmen,et al.  The effect of coal syngas containing HCl on the performance of solid oxide fuel cells: Investigations into the effect of operational temperature and HCl concentration , 2007 .

[61]  Martin A. Abraham,et al.  Deactivation due to sulfur poisoning and carbon deposition on Rh-Ni/Al2O3 catalyst during steam reforming of sulfur-doped n-hexadecane , 2009 .

[62]  S. Nam,et al.  Experimental and theoretical analysis of H2S effects on MCFCs , 2012 .

[63]  G. Cinti,et al.  Adsorptive removal of H2S in biogas conditions for high temperature fuel cell systems , 2014 .

[64]  A. Lanzini,et al.  Bio-hydrogen production from organic wastes in a pilot plant reactor and its use in a SOFC , 2011 .

[65]  G. Lindbergh,et al.  Effect of sulfur contaminants on MCFC performance , 2014 .

[66]  S. Brunauer,et al.  Chemisorptions of Gases on Iron Synthetic Ammonia Catalysts1 , 1940 .

[67]  K. Sasaki,et al.  Internal reforming SOFC running on biogas , 2010 .

[68]  Jens R. Rostrup-Nielsen,et al.  High temperature hydrogen sulfide chemisorption on nickel catalysts , 1981 .

[69]  Jingjing Pei,et al.  On the performance and mechanisms of formaldehyde removal by chemi-sorbents , 2011 .

[70]  R. Niessner,et al.  Removal of siloxanes in biogases. , 2001, Journal of hazardous materials.

[71]  Luisa F. Cabeza,et al.  Economic Viability of a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Working With Biogas , 2008 .

[72]  S. Rasi.  Biogas composition and upgrading to biomethane , 2009 .

[73]  T. Bandosz,et al.  Desulfurization of Digester Gas on Catalytic Carbonaceous Adsorbents: Complexity of Interactions between the Surface and Components of the Gaseous Mixture , 2006 .

[74]  Andrew Dicks,et al.  Catalytic aspects of the steam reforming of hydrocarbons in internal reforming fuel cells , 1997 .

[75]  D. Trimm.  Catalyst design for reduced coking (review) , 1983 .

[76]  Mogens Bjerg Mogensen,et al.  Evolution of the electrochemical interface in high-temperature fuel cells and electrolysers , 2016, Nature Energy.

[77]  Tong Seop Kim,et al.  Performance of a triple power generation cycle combining gas/steam turbine combined cycle and solid oxide fuel cell and the influence of carbon capture , 2014 .

[78]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Limiting factors for planar solid oxide fuel cells under different trace compound concentrations , 2016 .

[79]  K. Sasaki,et al.  Chemical Degradation of SOFCs: External Impurity Poisoning and Internal Diffusion-Related Phenomena , 2013 .

[80]  Jonghee Han,et al.  MCFC fed with biogas: Experimental investigation of sulphur poisoning using impedance spectroscopy , 2011 .

[81]  T. Bandosz,et al.  On the Mechanism of Hydrogen Sulfide Removal from Moist Air on Catalytic Carbonaceous Adsorbents , 2005 .

[82]  Kohei Ito,et al.  Chlorine Poisoning of SOFC Ni-Cermet Anodes , 2008 .

[83]  N. Kirkby.  Gas Separation by Adsorption Processes : R T Yang Butterworth Scientific Ltd, Guildford, UK 1986, 320 pp, ISBN 0 409 90004 4, £45.00 , 1988 .

[84]  R. Narbaitz,et al.  Least cost process design for granular activated carbon adsorbers , 1983 .

[85]  Ricardo Chacartegui,et al.  Potential of molten carbonate fuel cells to enhance the performance of CHP plants in sewage treatment facilities , 2013 .

[86]  Paloma Ferreira-Aparicio,et al.  Development of biogas reforming Ni-La-Al catalysts for fuel cells , 2007 .

[87]  Robert J. Braun,et al.  Techno-economic analysis of solid oxide fuel cell-based combined heat and power systems for biogas utilization at wastewater treatment facilities , 2013 .

[88]  Kelly Saikkonen,et al.  Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide from Biogas Using Cow-manure Compost , 2003 .

[89]  U. Desideri,et al.  Modeling the performance of MCFC for various fuel and oxidant compositions , 2014 .

[90]  Jason P. Trembly,et al.  Effects of coal syngas and H2S on the performance of solid oxide fuel cells: Single-cell tests , 2006 .

[91]  J. Jagiello,et al.  Enhanced reactive adsorption of H2S on Cu–BTC/ S- and N-doped GO composites , 2015 .

[92]  F. Biasioli,et al.  Proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry technique for the monitoring of volatile sulfur compounds in a fuel cell quality clean-up system , 2015 .

[93]  H. Wise,et al.  Thermodynamics of sulfur chemisorption on metals: V. Alumina-supported iridium , 1983 .

[94]  Tingshuai Li,et al.  Hydrogen sulfide poisoning in solid oxide fuel cells under accelerated testing conditions , 2010 .

[95]  K. Murata,et al.  Development of novel highly active and sulphur-tolerant catalysts for steam reforming of liquid hydrocarbons to produce hydrogen , 2004 .

[96]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Direct reforming of biogas on Ni-based SOFC anodes: Modelling of heterogeneous reactions and validation with experiments , 2013 .

[97]  D. Fino,et al.  Desulfurization processes for fuel cells systems , 2008 .

[98]  P. V. Aravind,et al.  Evaluation of high temperature gas cleaning options for biomass gasification product gas for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells , 2012 .

[99]  J. Rintala,et al.  Determination of organic silicon compounds in biogas from wastewater treatments plants, landfills, and co-digestion plants , 2010 .

[100]  Alan L. Myers,et al.  Thermodynamics of mixed‐gas adsorption , 1965 .

[101]  P. Weiland.  Biogas production: current state and perspectives , 2009, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[102]  S. J. McPhail,et al.  Molten carbonate fuel cells for CO2 separation and segregation by retrofitting existing plants – An analysis of feasible operating windows and first experimental findings , 2015 .

[103]  F. Biasioli,et al.  Influence of co-vapors on biogas filtration for fuel cells monitored with PTR-MS (Proton Transfer Reaction-Mass Spectrometry) , 2014 .

[104]  Rafael Borja,et al.  Anaerobic digestion of solid organic substrates in batch mode: An overview relating to methane yields and experimental procedures , 2012 .

[105]  C. Valderrama,et al.  Understanding the effects of the origin, occurrence, monitoring, control, fate and removal of siloxanes on the energetic valorization of sewage biogas - A review , 2015 .

[106]  Vincent Heuveline,et al.  Performance analysis of a SOFC under direct internal reforming conditions , 2007 .

[107]  T. Tsotsis,et al.  Impact of Siloxane Impurities on the Performance of an Engine Operating on Renewable Natural Gas , 2012 .

[108]  Christian P. Hulteberg.  Sulphur-Tolerant Catalysts In Small-Scale Hydrogen Production, A Review , 2012 .

[109]  Pere Margalef,et al.  Efficiency of poly-generating high temperature fuel cells , 2011 .

[110]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Carbon recovery and re-utilization (CRR) from the exhaust of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC): Analysis through a proof-of-concept , 2017 .

[111]  Bartłomiej Igliński,et al.  Development of measurement techniques for determination main and hazardous components in biogas utilised for energy purposes , 2013 .

[112]  Yebo Li,et al.  Hydrogen sulfide removal from biogas by bio-based iron sponge. , 2013 .

[113]  James A. Ritter,et al.  An extended Langmuir model for adsorption of gas mixtures on heterogeneous surfaces , 1990 .

[114]  A. Benton,et al.  THE ADSORPTION OF GAS MIXTURES BY SILICA , 1931 .

[115]  H. Hofbauer,et al.  Catalytic steam reforming of model biogas , 2008 .

[116]  A. Feilberg,et al.  Application of proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry to the assessment of odorant removal in a biological air cleaner for pig production. , 2012, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[117]  Antonio Galvagno,et al.  Analysis of biogas reforming process for molten carbonate fuel cells , 2012 .

[118]  Romano Borchiellini,et al.  Performance of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell short-stack with biogas feeding , 2014 .

[119]  N. Brandon,et al.  Structural modifications to nickel cermet anodes in fuel cell environments , 2010 .

[120]  John Bøgild Hansen,et al.  Correlating Sulfur Poisoning of SOFC Nickel Anodes by a Temkin Isotherm , 2008 .

[121]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Methane activation on Ni(111) : Effects of poisons and step defects , 2005 .

[122]  J. Zondlo,et al.  The effect of HCl in syngas on Ni-YSZ anode-supported solid oxide fuel cells , 2009 .

[123]  J. B. Rosen.  Kinetics of a Fixed Bed System for Solid Diffusion into Spherical Particles , 1952 .

[124]  E. Wheless,et al.  Siloxanes in Landfill and Digester Gas Update , 2005 .

[125]  Ruihong Zhang,et al.  Biogas production from co-digestion of dairy manure and food waste. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[126]  T. Matsui,et al.  Removal of siloxane from digestion gas of sewage sludge. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[127]  N. Verma,et al.  Removal of volatile organic compound by activated carbon fiber , 2004 .

[128]  Theodore T. Tsotsis,et al.  A Catalytic/Sorption Hybrid Process for Landfill Gas Cleanup , 1997 .

[129]  A. Banerjee,et al.  Progress in material selection for solid oxide fuel cell technology: A review , 2015 .

[130]  Rafael Font,et al.  Biogas from MSW landfill: Composition and determination of chlorine content with the AOX (adsorbable organically bound halogens) technique , 2013 .

[131]  Bernd Müller,et al.  Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012 , 2012 .

[132]  T. Tsotsis,et al.  Fate of Siloxane Impurities During the Combustion of Renewable Natural Gas , 2013 .

[133]  F. Rossi,et al.  Chemical absorption of H2S for biogas purification , 2004 .

[134]  A. Subrenat,et al.  Siloxane treatment by adsorption into porous materials , 2009, Environmental technology.

[135]  H. Vervaeren,et al.  Techniques for transformation of biogas to biomethane , 2011 .

[136]  H. Hofbauer,et al.  Experimental Study of Model Biogas Catalytic Steam Reforming: 2. Impact of Sulfur on the Deactivation and Regeneration of Ni-Based Catalysts , 2008 .

[137]  Kimberly L. Bothi.  Characterization of Biogas from Anaerobically Digested Dairy Waste for Energy Use , 2007 .

[138]  D. Brett,et al.  The effect of current density on H2S-poisoning of nickel-based solid oxide fuel cell anodes , 2011 .

[139]  K. Sasaki,et al.  H2S Poisoning of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells , 2006 .

[140]  D. B. Broughton.  Adsorption Isotherms for Binary Gas Mixtures , 1948 .

[141]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Sulfur poisoning in Ni-anode solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs): Deactivation in single cells and a stack , 2016 .

[142]  R. J. Spiegel,et al.  Fuel cell operation on landfill gas at Penrose Power Station , 1999 .

[143]  Mona Arnold,et al.  Reduction and monitoring of biogas trace compounds , 2009 .

[144]  M. Koyama,et al.  Chemical durability of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Influence of impurities on long-term performance , 2011 .

[145]  Takafumi Yoshida,et al.  Steam reforming of a clean model biogas over Ni/Al2O3 in fluidized- and fixed-bed reactors , 2002 .

[146]  Angeliki A. Lemonidou,et al.  Methane steam reforming at low temperature: Effect of light alkanes’ presence on coke formation , 2015 .

[147]  Mehran Alaee,et al.  Fate of anthropogenic cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes in a wastewater treatment plant. , 2015, Water research.

[148]  T. Melin,et al.  Siloxane removal from landfill and digester gas - a technology overview. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[149]  Jack Brouwer,et al.  Study of CO2 recovery in a carbonate fuel cell tri-generation plant , 2015 .

[150]  Alexander Schuler,et al.  The impact of sulfur on the performance of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) system operated with hydrocarboneous fuel gas , 2009 .

[151]  Rong Yan,et al.  Influence of surface properties on the mechanism of H2S removal by alkaline activated carbons. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[152]  N. Wakao,et al.  Effect of fluid dispersion coefficients on particle-to-fluid heat transfer coefficients in packed beds , 1978 .

[153]  François Maréchal,et al.  Large size biogas-fed Solid Oxide Fuel Cell power plants with carbon dioxide management: Technical and economic optimization , 2015 .

[154]  J. Oudar,et al.  Structure, mécanisme de formation et stabilité de la couche d'adsorption du soufre sur le nickel , 1970 .

[155]  Saija Rasi,et al.  Trace compounds of biogas from different biogas production plants. , 2007 .

[156]  T. Chen,et al.  Chlorine contaminants poisoning of solid oxide fuel cells , 2011 .

[157]  San Ping Jiang,et al.  A comparative study of H2S poisoning on electrode behavior of Ni/YSZ and Ni/GDC anodes of solid oxide fuel cells , 2010 .

[158]  Boris Iwanschitz,et al.  Fundamental mechanisms limiting solid oxide fuel cell durability , 2008 .

[159]  G. Manzolini,et al.  CO2 capture from combined cycles integrated with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells , 2010 .

[160]  Shudong Wang,et al.  Catalytic oxidation of hydrogen sulfide over unmodified and impregnated activated carbon , 2008 .

[161]  Vinod M. Janardhanan,et al.  A detailed kinetic model for biogas steam reforming on Ni and catalyst deactivation due to sulfur poisoning , 2014 .

[162]  De Chen,et al.  Pre-reforming of natural gas on a Ni catalyst Criteria for carbon free operation , 2005 .

[163]  Christian Ludwig,et al.  Damage of Siloxanes on Ni‐YSZ Anode Supported SOFC Operated on Hydrogen and Bio‐Syngas , 2015 .

[164]  Mu Li,et al.  Design of highly efficient coal-based integrated gasification fuel cell power plants , 2010 .

[165]  Van Nhu Nguyen,et al.  Methane/steam global reforming kinetics over the Ni/YSZ of planar pre-reformers for SOFC systems , 2016 .

[166]  Catherine M. Grgicak,et al.  SOFC anodes for direct oxidation of hydrogen and methane fuels containing H2S , 2008 .

[167]  Mogens Bjerg Mogensen,et al.  A Critical Review of Models of the H2/H2O/Ni/SZ Electrode Kinetics , 2007, ECS Transactions.

[168]  Chunshan Song,et al.  Influence of sulfur on the carbon deposition in steam reforming of liquid hydrocarbons over CeO2–Al2O3 supported Ni and Rh catalysts , 2011 .

[169]  M. Arnold,et al.  Development of on-line measurement techniques for siloxanes and other trace compounds in biogas. , 2010, Waste management.

[170]  Massimo Santarelli,et al.  Dynamic model with experimental validation of a biogas-fed SOFC plant , 2017 .

[171]  Jan Van herle,et al.  Biogas as a fuel source for SOFC co-generators , 2004 .

[172]  P. Germain,et al.  Volatile organic silicon compounds: the most undesirable contaminants in biogases. , 2008, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[173]  N. H. Ravindranath,et al.  Jatropha cultivation in southern India: assessing farmers' experiences , 2012 .

[174]  M. Douglas LeVan,et al.  Transition to Henry’s law in ultra-low concentration adsorption equilibrium for n-pentane on BPL activated carbon , 2008 .

[175]  Antonio Galvagno,et al.  Biogas as hydrogen source for fuel cell applications , 2013 .

[176]  J. Rostrup-Nielsen.  Some principles relating to the regeneration of sulfur-poisoned nickel catalyst , 1971 .

[177]  Nicolas Abatzoglou,et al.  A H2S reactive adsorption process for the purification of biogas prior to its use as a bioenergy vector , 2005 .

[178]  H. Wise,et al.  Thermodynamics of sulfur chemisorption on metals. I. Alumina‐supported nickel , 1980 .

[179]  R. Steinberger‐Wilckens,et al.  Consumer attitudes to fuel cell vehicles post trial in the United Kingdom , 2016 .

[180]  E. Ivers-Tiffée,et al.  Electrochemical Analysis of Sulphur-Poisoning in Anode-Supported SOFCs under Reformate Operation , 2012 .

[181]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Biogas reforming process investigation for SOFC application , 2015 .

[182]  F. Allard,et al.  Physically Based Modelling of the Material and Gaseous Contaminant Interactions in Buildings: Models, Experimental Data and Future Developments , 2008 .

[183]  F. Smeacetto,et al.  Sorbent materials for the cleaning of sewage biogas in high temperature fuel cell plants. , 2013 .

[184]  Koichi Asano,et al.  Applicability of molten carbonate fuel cells to various fuels , 2006 .

[185]  Paolo Chiesa,et al.  Using MCFC for high efficiency CO2 capture from natural gas combined cycles: Comparison of internal and external reforming , 2013 .

[186]  Weiwei Hu,et al.  VOC emissions, evolutions and contributions to SOA formation at a receptor site in eastern China , 2013 .

[187]  G. Wood.  A review of the effects of covapors on adsorption rate coefficients of organic vapors adsorbed onto activated carbon from flowing gases , 2002 .

[188]  R J Spiegel,et al.  Technical assessment of fuel cell operation on anaerobic digester gas at the Yonkers, NY, wastewater treatment plant. , 2003, Waste management.

[189]  Zhiguo Yuan,et al.  Iron salts dosage for sulfide control in sewers induces chemical phosphorus removal during wastewater treatment. , 2010, Water research.

[190]  A. Hagen.  Sulfur Poisoning of the Water Gas Shift Reaction on Anode Supported Solid Oxide Fuel Cells , 2013 .

[191]  Vinod M. Janardhanan,et al.  Deactivation and regeneration of Ni catalyst during steam reforming of model biogas: An experimental investigation , 2014 .

[192]  Florian Kraxner,et al.  Biomethane as transport fuel - A comparison with other biogas utilization pathways in northern Italy , 2015 .

[193]  François Maréchal,et al.  Process flow model of solid oxide fuel cell system supplied with sewage biogas , 2004 .

[194]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Experimental investigation of direct internal reforming of biogas in solid oxide fuel cells , 2010 .

[195]  J. Wagner,et al.  In situ Reduction and Oxidation of Nickel from Solid Oxide Fuel Cells in a Transmission Electron Microscope , 2009, ECS Transactions.

[196]  P. Ollero,et al.  Biogas desulfurization by adsorption on thermally treated sewage-sludge , 2014 .

[197]  C. Petit,et al.  Hydrogen sulfide adsorption on MOFs and MOF/graphite oxide composites. , 2010, Chemphyschem : a European journal of chemical physics and physical chemistry.

[198]  C. Paoletti,et al.  Studies on sulfur poisoning and development of advanced anodic materials for waste-to-energy fuel cells applications , 2010 .

[199]  A. Boudghene Stambouli,et al.  Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs): a review of an environmentally clean and efficient source of energy , 2002 .

[200]  H. Madi.  Investigations into the Effects of Biofuel Contaminants on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells , 2016 .

[201]  Palitha Jayaweera,et al.  Effect of various coal contaminants on the performance of solid oxide fuel cells: Part I. Accelerated testing , 2009 .

[202]  A. Hagen,et al.  Durability of solid oxide fuel cells using sulfur containing fuels , 2011 .

[203]  Vitaliano Chiodo,et al.  Effect of pollutants on biogas steam reforming , 2017 .

[204]  Fabrizio Scarpa,et al.  Biogas purification for MCFC application , 2011 .

[205]  N. Wakao,et al.  EFFECT OF FLUID DISPERSION COEFFICIENTS ON PARTICLE-TO-FLUID MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS IN PACKED BEDS. CORRELATION OF SHERWOOD NUMBERS , 1978 .

[206]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Hydrodesulfurization reaction pathways on MoS2 nanoclusters revealed by scanning tunneling microscopy , 2004 .

[207]  Franco Biasioli,et al.  Monitoring of volatile compound emissions during dry anaerobic digestion of the Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste by Proton Transfer Reaction Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. , 2012, Bioresource technology.

[208]  Andrea Lanzini,et al.  Waste to energy: exploitation of biogas from organic waste in a 500 Wel solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stack. , 2015 .

[209]  A. Rasmuson.  Exact solution of a model for diffusion and transient adsorption in particles and longitudinal dispersion in packed beds , 1981 .

[210]  R. Niessner,et al.  Determination of Siloxanes and VOC in Landfill Gas and Sewage Gas by Canister Sampling and GC-MS/AES Analysis , 1999 .

[211]  Faryar Jabbari,et al.  Analysis of a molten carbonate fuel cell: Numerical modeling and experimental validation , 2006 .

[212]  A. Hagen,et al.  The effect of H2S on the performance of Ni-YSZ anodes in solid oxide fuel cells , 2009 .

[213]  R. T. Yang,et al.  Gas Separation by Adsorption Processes , 1987 .

[214]  Bengt Sundén,et al.  Review on modeling development for multiscale chemical reactions coupled transport phenomena in solid oxide fuel cells , 2010 .

[215]  C. Petit,et al.  MOF–Graphite Oxide Composites: Combining the Uniqueness of Graphene Layers and Metal–Organic Frameworks , 2009 .

[216]  J. Sehested,et al.  Sintering of nickel catalysts: Effects of time, atmosphere, temperature, nickel-carrier interactions, and dopants , 2006 .