Thrombosis and Cerebrovascular Disease

Vascular endothelial-hemostatic interactions are important in maintaining uninterrupted cerebral blood flow. Alterations in the integrity of the endothelium of brain-supplying arteries may compromise flow secondary to platelet aggregation, activation of the coagulation system, or changes in the erythrocyte or leukocyte constituents of the blood with consequent thrombotic occlusion leading to cerebral ischemic tissue injury [1–3]. The majority of acute strokes are pathogenetically related to atherothrombotic or thromboembolic events [4–6]. The location and extent of the territory suffering ischemia is determined by the presence, the type and the degree of arterial collateralization [7–8]. Hemorheologic considerations may also affect the extent of cerebral tissue injury. This review outlines the role of thrombosis in acute stroke, some of the characteristics of the cerebrovascular anatomy important for the development of ischemic stroke, and the basis for the use of antithrombotic agents in the treatment of cerebral ischemia.

[1]  R. Adams,et al.  THE ANATOMY AND FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MENINGEAL ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSES OF THE HUMAN BRAIN , 1953, Journal of neuropathology and experimental neurology.

[2]  J. Toole,et al.  Anticoagulant therapy in cerebral infarction , 1962, Neurology.

[3]  J. Marshall.  Management of Cerebrovascular Disease , 1965 .

[4]  D. Morrison,et al.  DIRECT EVIDENCE FOR HAGEMAN FACTOR (FACTOR XII) ACTIVATION BY BACTERIAL LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES (ENDOTOXINS) , 1974, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[5]  R. Rosenberg.  Actions and interactions of antithrombin and heparin. , 1975, The New England journal of medicine.

[6]  P. Majerus,et al.  The mechanism of the effect of aspirin on human platelets. I. Acetylation of a particulate fraction protein. , 1975, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[7]  H. Goldsmith,et al.  Fluid Mechanical Stress and the Platelet , 1975, Thrombosis and Haemostasis.

[8]  T. Pearson,et al.  EFFECT OF HÆMATOCRIT ON CEREBRAL BLOOD-FLOW IN MAN , 1977, The Lancet.

[9]  J. Fierer,et al.  Blood coagulation and the inflammatory response. , 1977, Seminars in hematology.

[10]  H. Duvernoy.  Human Brainstem Vessels , 1977 .

[11]  H. Baumgartner,et al.  PHYSICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING PLATELET DEPOSITION ON SUBENDOTHELIUM: IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD SHEAR RATE * , 1977 .

[12]  T. Barrowcliffe,et al.  Antithrombin III and heparin. , 1978, British medical bulletin.

[13]  P. Henson,et al.  Enhancement of platelet response to immune complexes and IgG aggregates by lipid A-rich bacterial lipopolysaccharides , 1978, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[14]  P. Majerus,et al.  Inhibition of platelet prostaglandin synthetase by oral aspirin. , 1978, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[15]  A. Breckenridge.  Oral anticoagulant drugs: pharmacokinetic aspects. , 1978, Seminars in hematology (Print).

[16]  G. Majno,et al.  Endothelium 1977: a review. , 1978, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[17]  W. S. Fields,et al.  Controlled Trial of Aspirin in Cerebral Ischemia. Part II: Surgical Group , 1978, Stroke.

[18]  Kaplan Ap.  Initiation of the intrinsic coagulation and fibrinolytic pathways of man: the role of surfaces, hageman factor, prekallikrein, high molecular weight kininogen, and factor XI. , 1978 .

[19]  J. Miletich,et al.  Properties of the factor Xa binding site on human platelets. , 1978, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[20]  J. Miletich,et al.  Relationships between platelets and coagulation factors in hemostasis. , 1978, Annual review of medicine.

[21]  V. Hachinski,et al.  Acute stroke. , 1978 .

[22]  Gerrard Jm,et al.  Prostaglandins and thromboxanes: "middlemen" modulating platelet function in hemostasis and thrombosis. , 1978 .

[23]  S Moncada,et al.  Arachidonic acid metabolites and the interactions between platelets and blood-vessel walls. , 1979, The New England journal of medicine.

[24]  M. Gent,et al.  The Influence of Red Blood Cells on the Effects of Aspirin or Sulphinpyrazone on Platelet Adherence to Damaged Rabbit Aorta , 1979, British journal of haematology.

[25]  G. Vilaire,et al.  Exposure of platelet fibrinogen receptors by ADP and epinephrine. , 1979, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[26]  Marcus Aj.  The role of prostaglandins in platelet function. , 1979 .

[27]  E. Loeliger.  The Optimal Therapeutic Range in Oral Anticoagulation History and Proposal , 1979, Thrombosis and Haemostasis.

[28]  P. Majerus,et al.  The role of prostaglandins in platelet function. , 1979, Seminars in hematology.

[29]  M. Drillings,et al.  Platelet alpha-granule proteins: studies on release and subcellular localization , 1979 .

[30]  P. Lollar,et al.  Clearance of thrombin from circulation in rabbits by high-affinity binding sites on endothelium. Possible role in the inactivation of thrombin by antithrombin III. , 1980, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[31]  C. Francis,et al.  Plasmic degradation of crosslinked fibrin. Characterization of new macromolecular soluble complexes and a model of their structure. , 1980, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[32]  R. Gryglewski,et al.  Prostaglandins, platelets, and atherosclerosis. , 1980, CRC critical reviews in biochemistry.

[33]  D. Collen.  On the Regulation and Control of Fibrinolysis , 1980, Thrombosis and Haemostasis.

[34]  M B Zucker,et al.  The functioning of blood platelets. , 1980, Scientific American.

[35]  F. Mcdowell,et al.  Treatment of progressing stroke. , 1981, Progress in cardiovascular diseases.

[36]  J. Smith.  Dipyridamole may be more effective with sodium salicylate than with aspirin. , 1981, American heart journal.

[37]  E. Plow,et al.  Interaction of fibrinogen with its platelet receptor: kinetics and effect of pH and temperature. , 1981, Biochemistry.

[38]  C. Esmon,et al.  Generation of fibrinolytic activity by infusion of activated protein C into dogs. , 1981, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[39]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Endothelium and arteriosclerosis. , 1981, Clinics in haematology.

[40]  R. Od.  The role of haemostatic mechanisms. , 1981 .

[41]  K. Lechner,et al.  Antithrombin III deficiency and thromboembolism. , 1981, Clinics in haematology.

[42]  J. Brandt,et al.  Laboratory monitoring of heparin. Effect of reagents and instruments on the activated partial thromboplastin time. , 1981, American journal of clinical pathology.

[43]  J. Hermans,et al.  Fibrin: Structure and Interactions , 1982, Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis.

[44]  W. Hacke,et al.  [Local fibrinolysis in basilar artery thrombosis (author's transl)]. , 2008, Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift.

[45]  M. Modic,et al.  Hemorrhage and anticoagulation after nonseptic embolic brain infarction , 1982, Neurology.

[46]  P. Sørensen,et al.  Acetylsalicylic acid in the prevention of stroke in patients with reversible cerebral ischemic attacks. A Danish cooperative study. , 1983, Stroke.

[47]  V. Fuster,et al.  Trial of combined warfarin plus dipyridamole or aspirin therapy in prosthetic heart valve replacement: danger of aspirin compared with dipyridamole. , 1983, The American journal of cardiology.

[48]  E. Ringelstein,et al.  Local intraarterial thrombolysis in vertebrobasilar thromboembolic disease. , 1983, AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology.

[49]  L. Harker,et al.  Manual of Hemostasis and Thrombosis , 1983 .

[50]  N. Sakuragawa,et al.  [Cerebral vessels and thrombosis]. , 1984, [Rinsho ketsueki] The Japanese journal of clinical hematology.

[51]  P. Harpel,et al.  Inhibitors of the Fibrinolytic Enzyme System , 1984, Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis.

[52]  M. Motomiya,et al.  Flow Patterns in the Human Carotid Artery Bifurcation , 1984, Stroke.

[53]  F. Bachmann,et al.  Tissue Plasminogen Activator: Chemical and Physiological Aspects , 1984, Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis.

[54]  A. Nath,et al.  Immediate anticoagulation of embolic stroke: brain hemorrhage and management options. Cerebral Embolism Study Group. , 1984, Stroke.

[55]  F. Castellino.  Biochemistry of Human Plasminogen , 1984, Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis.

[56]  K. Zülch,et al.  The Cerebral Infarct: Pathology, Pathogenesis, and Computed Tomography , 1985 .

[57]  R. Schneider,et al.  Der Beitrag der zerebralen Computertomographie zur Differentialtypologie und Differentialtherapie des ischämischen Großhirninfarktes , 1985 .

[58]  H. Zeumer,et al.  Thrombolytic therapy in stroke: possibilities and hazards. , 1986, Stroke.

[59]  V. Fuster,et al.  Pharmacology of platelet inhibitors. , 1986, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[60]  P. Comp,et al.  The regulation of hemostasis: the protein C system. , 1986, The New England journal of medicine.

[61]  L. Harker.  Antiplatelet Drugs in the Management of Patients with Thrombotic Disorders , 1986, Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis.

[62]  H. Hod,et al.  Enhancement of thrombolysis with tissue-type plasminogen activator by pretreatment with heparin. , 1986, Circulation.

[63]  H. Goldsmith,et al.  Rheological Aspects of Thrombosis and Haemostasis: Basic Principles and Applications , 1986, Thrombosis and Haemostasis.