Monitoring and Adaptive Control of Laser Processes

Abstract Monitoring of laser processes has been researched actively since the 1980's in several institutes around the world. The goal of process monitoring is to gather information on the process and to improve the understanding of the occurring phenomena, and to use the gathered data to createquality control methods and adaptive, closed loop control of the process. The methods used forlaser process monitoring can be divided into optical and acoustic methods of which the optical methods are more common. Today, monitoring has been commercially applied to even the newest laser processes, e.g. additive manufacturing. For laser welding, the process monitoring has been developed even further and closed-loop systems have been demonstrated several years ago. The improvements in digital camera technology and data processing have resulted in development of systems that use feature recognition for determining certain features of the process. Monitoring systems have developed from simple systems using single sensors to a more sophisticated systems utilizing a multitude of different detectors and detection methods.

[1]  Ronald Tetzlaff,et al.  Closed-loop Control of Laser Power using the Full Penetration Hole Image Feature in Aluminum Welding Processes , 2011 .

[2]  R. Kling,et al.  Closed loop control for laser micro spot welding using fast pyrometer systems , 2010 .

[3]  E. Schubert,et al.  Spectroscopic diagnostics on CW-laser welding plasmas of aluminum alloys , 2001 .

[4]  M. F. Zaeh,et al.  Thermography for Monitoring the Selective Laser Melting Process , 2012 .

[5]  Bengt Lennartson,et al.  Height control of laser metal-wire deposition based on iterative learning control and 3D scanning , 2012 .

[6]  T. Seefeld,et al.  A Novel Thermal Sensor Applied for Laser Materials Processing , 2013 .

[7]  Andres Gasser,et al.  Study on influential factors for process monitoring and control in laser aided additive manufacturing , 2013 .

[8]  John G. Webster,et al.  The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook , 1998 .

[9]  Hana Chmelickova,et al.  Non-destructive Real Time Monitoring of the Laser Welding Process , 2012, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance.

[10]  Huang Weidong,et al.  Research on molten pool temperature in the process of laser rapid forming , 2008 .

[11]  Thomas B. Moeslund,et al.  Thermal cameras and applications: a survey , 2013, Machine Vision and Applications.

[12]  K. H. Leong,et al.  Laser Weld Penetration Estimation Using Temperature Measurements , 1999 .

[13]  Pietro Mario Lugarà,et al.  Optical detection of conduction/keyhole mode transition in laser welding , 2007 .

[14]  J. Sabbaghzadeh,et al.  Comparison of pulsed Nd : YAG laser welding qualitative features with plasma plume thermal characteristics , 2007 .

[15]  J. Hoffman,et al.  Time-dependent spectroscopy of plasma plume under laser welding conditions , 2004 .

[17]  G. Flamant,et al.  On-line thermocycles measurements in laser applications , 1994 .

[18]  Antonio Ancona,et al.  A Real-Time Spectroscopic Sensor for Monitoring Laser Welding Processes , 2009, Sensors.

[19]  Xin Lin,et al.  Mechanics and energy analysis on molten pool spreading during laser solid forming , 2010 .

[20]  M. Doubenskaia,et al.  Pyrometric analysis of thermal processes in SLM technology , 2010 .

[21]  Heikki Kälviäinen,et al.  Visual measurement and tracking in laser hybrid welding , 2009, Machine Vision and Applications.

[22]  寺西 信一.  Image Sensors and Signal Processing for Digital Still Cameras, Edited by Junichi Nakamura, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group刊, 2005年8月5日発行, 234×155×23mm, 336頁, 定価($169.95) , 2008 .

[23]  Yong Yan,et al.  Review of techniques for on-line monitoring and inspection of laser welding , 2005 .

[24]  Halit Eren,et al.  Spatial, mechanical, thermal, and radiation measurement , 2014 .

[25]  Halit Eren,et al.  Electromagnetic, optical, radiation, chemical, and biomedical measurement , 2014 .

[26]  J. Mazumder,et al.  Visualization of a laser melt pool. , 1990, Applied optics.

[27]  C Peters,et al.  Focus control system for laser welding. , 1997, Applied optics.

[28]  Do-Chang Ahn,et al.  Coaxial monitoring of keyhole during Yb:YAG laser welding , 2012 .

[29]  A. Drenker,et al.  Detectability of Penetration based on Weld Pool Geometry and Process Emission Spectrum in Laser Welding of Copper , 2013 .

[30]  Halit Eren,et al.  Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook : Spatial, Mechanical, Thermal, and Radiation Measurement , 2014 .

[31]  Yixiong Wu,et al.  Stability information in plasma image of high-power CO2 laser welding , 2009 .

[32]  Sergey N. Grigoriev,et al.  Optical Monitoring in Laser Cladding of Ti6Al4V , 2012, Journal of Thermal Spray Technology.

[33]  P. Wild,et al.  Automatic detection of lack of fusion defects in CO2 laser gear welding , 2003 .

[34]  Pietro Mario Lugarà,et al.  Correlation spectroscopy as a tool for detecting losses of ligand elements in laser welding of aluminium alloys , 2006 .

[35]  G. Śliwiński,et al.  Temperature distribution in laser-clad multi-layers , 2004 .

[36]  L. Hao,et al.  Effect of selective laser melting layout on the quality of stainless steel parts , 2012 .

[37]  Rémy Glardon,et al.  3D FE simulation for temperature evolution in the selective laser sintering process , 2004 .

[38]  Paul G. Sanders,et al.  Real-time monitoring of laser beam welding using infrared weld emissions , 1998 .

[39]  Helmut Huegel,et al.  Laser beam welding: recent developments on process conduction and quality assurance , 1999, Other Conferences.

[40]  P. Castelli,et al.  On-Line Process Control Used in the Laser Welding of Metal Sheet Lightweight Structural Panels , 1999 .

[41]  Fujun Wang,et al.  Online study of cracks during laser cladding process based on acoustic emission technique and finite element analysis , 2008 .

[42]  Genyu Chen,et al.  Observation of spatter formation mechanisms in high-power fiber laser welding of thick plate , 2013 .

[43]  K. Chrzanowski,et al.  Pyrometer for temperature measurement of selective objects of unknown and variable emissivity , 2000 .

[44]  C. Tan.  Rotatory dispersion in optical activity and a rotary Fourier transform spectrometer , 2013 .

[45]  J. Grum,et al.  The influence of different conditions of laser-beam interaction in laser surface hardening of steels , 2004 .

[46]  Stefan Kaierle,et al.  Einsatz optischer Technologien zur Regelung des Laserstrahlschweißprozesses (Application of Optical Technologies for Closed Loop Control of Laser Beam Welding) , 2005, Autom..

[47]  M. Rombouts,et al.  Cracking behavior and mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel parts produced by laser metal deposition , 2013 .

[48]  T. Duvaut,et al.  Comparison between multiwavelength infrared and visible pyrometry: Application to metals , 2008 .

[49]  Elijah Kannatey-Asibu,et al.  Monitoring of laser weld penetration using sensor fusion , 2002 .

[50]  A. Veld,et al.  Process Control of Stainless Steel Laser Welding using an Optical Spectroscopic Sensor , 2011 .

[51]  P. M. Lugarà,et al.  Optical Sensor for real-time Monitoring of CO(2) Laser Welding Process. , 2001, Applied optics.

[52]  Alexander Kaplan,et al.  Challenges to the interpretation of the electromagnetic feedback from laser welding , 2011 .

[53]  Akira Hosokawa,et al.  Monitoring of Laser Consolidation Process of Metal Powder with High Speed Video Camera , 2012 .

[54]  Z. Szymański,et al.  The spectroscopy of the plasma plume induced during laser welding of stainless steel and titanium , 1997 .

[55]  Frantisek Uherek,et al.  Spectroscopic investigation of laser-induced plasma in laser beam welding , 2002, International Conference on Laser and Laser Information Technologies.

[56]  Jan Bültmann,et al.  Design of an Optical system for the In Situ Process Monitoring of Selective Laser Melting (SLM) , 2011 .

[57]  G. Jeandel,et al.  Spectroscopic studies of laser-induced plume during welding with an Nd:YAG laser , 1996, Other Conferences.

[58]  J. Laserna,et al.  Spectral analysis of the acoustic emission of laser-produced plasmas. , 2003, Applied optics.

[59]  Y. Chivel’,et al.  Optical In-Process Temperature Monitoring of Selective Laser Melting , 2013 .

[60]  Lin Li,et al.  A Comparative Study of Ultrasound Emission Characteristics in Laser Processing , 2002 .

[61]  H. K. Tönshoff,et al.  Process control systems in laser materials processing , 1995 .

[62]  Yu. Chivel,et al.  Temperature Monitoring and Overhang Layers Problem , 2011 .

[63]  J. Hofman,et al.  A camera based feedback control strategy for the laser cladding process , 2012 .

[64]  Matti Manninen,et al.  Evaluation of Different Monitoring Methods of Laser Additive Manufacturing of Stainless Steel , 2013 .

[65]  L. Froyen,et al.  Fundamentals of Selective Laser Melting of alloyed steel powders , 2006 .

[66]  Reinhart Poprawe,et al.  Identification and qualification of temperature signal for monitoring and control in laser cladding , 2006 .

[67]  J. Jones,et al.  Real-time optical monitoring of gas shield condition during Nd:YAG laser welding , 1998 .

[68]  Deyong You,et al.  Seam Tracking Monitoring Based on Adaptive Kalman Filter Embedded Elman Neural Network During High-Power Fiber Laser Welding , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.

[69]  Stefan Kaierle,et al.  Adaptive quality control for laser beam welding , 1999 .

[70]  Deyong You,et al.  Visual-based spatter detection during high-power disk laser welding , 2014 .

[71]  S. Lee,et al.  Analysis of Acoustic Emission Signals During Laser Spot Welding of SS304 Stainless Steel , 2014, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance.

[72]  Radovan Kovacevic,et al.  Sensing, modeling and control for laser-based additive manufacturing , 2003 .

[73]  Luke M. Brander,et al.  THE SIXTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON APPLICATIONS OF LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS: , 1987 .

[74]  Hans Engström,et al.  State-of-the-art of monitoring and imaging of laser welding defects , 2007 .

[75]  L. Tang,et al.  Melt Pool Temperature Control for Laser Metal Deposition Processes—Part I: Online Temperature Control , 2010 .

[76]  Deyong You,et al.  Multiple-optics sensing of high-brightness disk laser welding process , 2013 .

[77]  M. L. Nai,et al.  Micro-structure and mechanical properties of nano-TiC reinforced Inconel 625 deposited using LAAM , 2013 .

[78]  Jean-Pierre Kruth,et al.  Quality control of laser- and powder bed-based Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies , 2010 .

[79]  Dominique Grevey,et al.  Application of near infrared pyrometry for continuous Nd:YAG laser welding of stainless steel , 2000 .

[80]  Sergey N. Grigoriev,et al.  Definition of brightness temperature and restoration of true temperature in laser cladding using infrared camera , 2013 .

[81]  Michael Bass,et al.  Laser Materials Processing , 2018 .

[82]  Pietro Mario Lugarà,et al.  Correlation analysis in laser welding plasma , 2005 .

[83]  M. Doubenskaia,et al.  Pyrometry in laser surface treatment , 2006 .

[84]  M. Doubenskaia,et al.  Optical Diagnostics of Deposition of Metal Matrix Composites by Laser Cladding , 2011 .

[85]  Deyong You,et al.  Monitoring of high-power laser welding using high-speed photographing and image processing , 2014 .

[86]  Tom Craeghs,et al.  Detection of Process Failures in Layerwise Laser Melting with Optical Process Monitoring , 2012 .

[87]  Daniel Malacara.  Handbook of Optical Engineering , 2001 .

[88]  G. K. Lewis,et al.  Measurement of energy deposition during pulsed laser welding , 1991 .

[89]  Rudolf Weber,et al.  Effects of Welding Parameters Onto Keyhole Geometry for Partial Penetration Laser Welding , 2013 .

[90]  M. Khater.  Characteristics and performance of a VUV spectrometer , 2013 .

[91]  Ronald G.K.M. Aarts,et al.  Penetration control in laser welding of sheet metal , 2002 .

[92]  Hans Joachim Eichler,et al.  Monitoring of Focus Position During Laser Processing based on Plasma Emission , 2013 .

[93]  Jean-Pierre Kruth,et al.  Determination of geometrical factors in Layerwise Laser Melting using optical process monitoring , 2011 .

[94]  Jean-Pierre Kruth,et al.  Feedback control of Layerwise Laser Melting using optical sensors , 2010 .

[95]  B. Previtali,et al.  Through Optical Combiner Monitoring of Fiber Laser Processes , 2010 .

[96]  Adolfo Cobo,et al.  Closed-loop power and focus control of laser welding for full-penetration monitoring. , 2005, Applied optics.

[97]  Akira Hosokawa,et al.  Investigation of laser consolidation process for metal powder by two-color pyrometer and high-speed video camera , 2013 .

[98]  Akira Hosokawa,et al.  Study on laser consolidation of metal powder with Yb:fiber laser—Evaluation of line consolidation structure , 2009 .

[99]  Antonio Ancona,et al.  Spectroscopic monitoring of penetration depth in CO2 Nd:YAG and fiber laser welding processes , 2012 .

[100]  B. Stucker,et al.  A review of thermal analysis methods in Laser Sintering and Selective Laser Melting , 2012 .

[101]  Dae-Gab Gweon,et al.  In-Process joint strength estimation in pulsed laser spot welding using artificial neural networks , 1999 .

[102]  J. Greening,et al.  Radiation Measurement , 1970, Nature.

[103]  Frank W. Liou,et al.  Vision-based defect detection in laser metal deposition process , 2014 .

[104]  Frederic Truchetet,et al.  LASER CLADDING PROCESS AND IMAGE PROCESSING , 1997 .

[105]  J. Jones,et al.  Optical techniques for real-time penetration monitoring for laser welding. , 2005, Applied optics.

[106]  Edward V. Locke,et al.  Deep penetration welding with high-power CO 2 lasers , 1972 .

[107]  Peter Norman,et al.  Monitoring undercut, blowouts and root sagging during laser beam welding , 2009 .

[108]  M. Doubenskaia,et al.  Comprehensive analysis of laser cladding by means of optical diagnostics and numerical simulation , 2013 .

[109]  Ronald Tetzlaff,et al.  Camera Based Closed Loop Control for Partial Penetration Welding of Overlap Joints , 2011 .

[110]  Yu. Chivel,et al.  On-line temperature monitoring in selective laser sintering/melting , 2010 .

[111]  I. Yadroitsava,et al.  Selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V alloy for biomedical applications: Temperature monitoring and microstructural evolution , 2014 .

[112]  John S. Wilson,et al.  Sensor Technology Handbook , 2004 .

[113]  Antonio Ancona,et al.  Online quality monitoring of welding processes by means of plasma optical spectroscopy , 2000, Advanced High-Power Lasers and Applications.

[114]  D. Farson,et al.  Relationship of optical and acoustic emissions to laser weld penetration , 1998 .

[115]  Frantisek Uherek,et al.  Monitoring of laser welding by optical emission spectroscopy , 2003 .

[116]  D. DixonR,et al.  ELECTRON EMISSION AND PLASMA FORMATION DURING LASER BEAM WELDING , 1985 .

[117]  Radovan Kovacevic,et al.  Detection of defects in laser welding of AZ31B magnesium alloy in zero-gap lap joint configuration by a real-time spectroscopic analysis , 2014 .

[118]  Frank W. Liou,et al.  Development of low‐cost imaging system for laser metal deposition processes , 2011 .

[119]  M. E. Khosroshahi,et al.  In situ monitoring the pulse CO2 laser interaction with 316-L stainless steel using acoustical signals and plasma analysis , 2010 .

[120]  Holographic visualization of laser-induced plume in pulsed laser welding , 2001 .

[121]  Koungsuk Kim,et al.  Quantitative visualization of the laser induced plume behavior using quasi-heterodyne holographic interferometry , 2001 .

[122]  Emission spectroscopy of plasma during laser welding of AISI 201 stainless steel , 1989 .

[123]  Radovan Kovacevic,et al.  Real-time monitoring of laser welding of galvanized high strength steel in lap joint configuration , 2012 .

[124]  Antti Salminen,et al.  Temperature profile and imaging analysis of laser additive manufacturing of stainless steel , 2013 .

[125]  Junichi Nakamura,et al.  Image Sensors and Signal Processing for Digital Still Cameras , 2005 .