Assembling Amperometric Biosensors for Clinical Diagnostics

Clinical diagnosis and disease prevention routinely require the assessment of species determined by chemical analysis. Biosensor technology offers several benefits over conventional diagnostic analysis. They include simplicity of use, specificity for the target analyte, speed to arise to a result, capability for continuous monitoring and multiplexing, together with the potentiality of coupling to low-cost, portable instrumentation. This work focuses on the basic lines of decisions when designing electron-transfer-based biosensors for clinical analysis, with emphasis on the strategies currently used to improve the device performance, the present status of amperometric electrodes for biomedicine, and the trends and challenges envisaged for the near future.

[1]  E. Paleček,et al.  Oscillographic Polarography of Highly Polymerized Deoxyribonucleic Acid , 1960, Nature.

[2]  L. C. Clark,et al.  ELECTRODE SYSTEMS FOR CONTINUOUS MONITORING IN CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY , 1962 .

[3]  G. Hicks,et al.  The Enzyme Electrode , 1967, Nature.

[4]  E. Paleček,et al.  Polarographic techniques in nucleic acid research. , 1969, Progress in nucleic acid research and molecular biology.

[5]  G. Siest,et al.  Drug Interference in Clinical Chemistry: Studies on Ascorbic Acid , 1978, Journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry. Zeitschrift fur klinische Chemie und klinische Biochemie.

[6]  M Aizawa,et al.  Enzyme immunosensor. III. Amperometric determination of human chorionic gonadotropin by membrane-bound antibody. , 1979, Analytical biochemistry.

[7]  D. Scheidegger,et al.  Production of monoclonal antibodies: strategy and tactics. , 1980, Journal of immunological methods.

[8]  J. Rishpon,et al.  Enzyme electrode for the determination of glucose. , 1981, Analytical chemistry.

[9]  K. Yoda,et al.  Multi-enzyme membrane electrodes for determination of creatinine and creatine in serum. , 1983, Clinical chemistry.

[10]  A. Turner,et al.  Ferrocene-mediated enzyme electrode for amperometric determination of glucose. , 1984, Analytical chemistry.

[11]  M. Sirridge.  Laboratory evaluation of the bleeding patient. , 1984, Clinics in laboratory medicine.

[12]  P. Tijssen,et al.  Practice and theory of enzyme immunoassays , 1985 .

[13]  G. Palleschi,et al.  A study of interferences in glucose measurements in blood by hydrogen peroxide based glucose probes. , 1986, Analytical biochemistry.

[14]  B. Gasior-Chrzan.  [The biological role of lysozyme and its usefulness in clinical practice]. , 1987, Wiadomosci lekarskie.

[15]  A. Turner.  The realisation of electron transfer from biological molecules to electrodes , 1987 .

[16]  E. Paleček,et al.  Adsorptive transfer stripping voltammetry: determination of nanogram quantities of DNA immobilized at the electrode surface. , 1988, Analytical biochemistry.

[17]  Hari Gunasingham,et al.  Chemically modified cellulose acetate membrane for biosensor applications , 1989 .

[18]  R. Wallerstein.  Laboratory evaluation of a bleeding patient. , 1989, The Western journal of medicine.

[19]  M. Comtat,et al.  Bienzyme amperometric lactate-specific electrode , 1990 .

[20]  Alexander M. Yacynych,et al.  Electropolymerized 1,2-diaminobenzene as a means to prevent interferences and fouling and to stabilize immobilized enzyme in electrochemical biosensors , 1990 .

[21]  J. Szostak,et al.  In vitro selection of RNA molecules that bind specific ligands , 1990, Nature.

[22]  M. Ho,et al.  Flow injection analysis of L-lactate with enzyme amplification and amperometric detection. , 1990, Analytical chemistry.

[23]  Björn Persson,et al.  Selective detection in flow analysis based on the combination of immobilized enzymes and chemically modified electrodes , 1991 .

[24]  Alexander M. Yacynych,et al.  Electropolymerized films to prevent interferences and electrode fouling in biosensors , 1991 .

[25]  M. Senda,et al.  Urea biosensor based on amperometric ammonium ion electrode , 1993 .

[26]  K. M. Millan,et al.  Sequence-selective biosensor for DNA based on electroactive hybridization indicators. , 1993, Analytical chemistry.

[27]  Ebtisam Wilkins,et al.  Effect of interference on amperometric glucose biosensors with cellulose acetate membranes , 1994 .

[28]  H. Kondo,et al.  Electrochemically active DNA probes: detection of target DNA sequences at femtomole level by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. , 1994, Analytical biochemistry.

[29]  G. S. Wilson,et al.  Elimination of the acetaminophen interference in an implantable glucose sensor. , 1994, Analytical chemistry.

[30]  M. Meyerhoff,et al.  Separation-free sandwich enzyme immunoassays using microporous gold electrodes and self-assembled monolayer/immobilized capture antibodies. , 1994, Analytical chemistry.

[31]  K. Hashimoto,et al.  Sequence-specific gene detection with a gold electrode modified with DNA probes and an electrochemically active dye. , 1994, Analytical chemistry.

[32]  A Heller,et al.  "Wired" enzyme electrodes for amperometric determination of glucose or lactate in the presence of interfering substances. , 1994, Analytical chemistry.

[33]  R. Palmiter.  Regulation of metallothionein genes by heavy metals appears to be mediated by a zinc-sensitive inhibitor that interacts with a constitutively active transcription factor, MTF-1. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[34]  E M Southern,et al.  Studies on the base pairing properties of deoxyinosine by solid phase hybridisation to oligonucleotides. , 1994, Nucleic acids research.

[35]  E. R. Reynolds,et al.  Direct sensing platinum ultramicrobiosensors for glucose. , 1994, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[36]  John P. Hart,et al.  Fabrication and characterization of a screen-printed, disposable, amperometric cholesterol biosensor , 1994 .

[37]  B. Chernow,et al.  The use and clinical importance of a substrate-specific electrode for rapid determination of blood lactate concentrations. , 1994, JAMA.

[38]  Frieder W. Scheller,et al.  Determination of p-aminophenol and catecholamines at picomolar concentrations based on recycling enzyme amplification , 1995 .

[39]  Dean H. Johnston,et al.  ELECTROCHEMICAL MEASUREMENT OF THE SOLVENT ACCESSIBILITY OF NUCLEOBASES USING ELECTRON TRANSFER BETWEEN DNA AND METAL COMPLEXES , 1995 .

[40]  M. Meyerhoff,et al.  Novel nonseparation sandwich-type electrochemical enzyme immunoassay system for detecting marker proteins in undiluted blood. , 1995, Clinical chemistry.

[41]  A. Ghindilis,et al.  Ultrasensitive Biosensors , 1995, Proceedings of the International Solid-State Sensors and Actuators Conference - TRANSDUCERS '95.

[42]  Karl Cammann,et al.  A novel enzyme sensor for the determination of inorganic phosphate , 1995 .

[43]  A. L. Lacey,et al.  Amperometric enzyme electrode for NADP+ based on a ferrodoxin-NADP+ reductase and viologen-modified glassy carbon electrode , 1995 .

[44]  Alexander M. Yacynych,et al.  Use of polymer films in amperometric biosensors , 1995 .

[45]  C P Price,et al.  Immunosensors: technology and opportunities in laboratory medicine. , 1996, Clinical chemistry.

[46]  Susan R. Mikkelsen,et al.  Electrochecmical biosensors for DNA sequence detection , 1996 .

[47]  Plamen Atanasov,et al.  Fast amperometric immunoassay for hantavirus infection , 1996 .

[48]  E. Paleček,et al.  From polarography of DNA to microanalysis with nucleic acid-modified electrodes , 1996 .

[49]  F. Caruso,et al.  Orientational Aspects of Antibody Immobilization and Immunological Activity on Quartz Crystal Microbalance Electrodes , 1996 .

[50]  J Wang,et al.  DNA electrochemical biosensor for the detection of short DNA sequences related to the human immunodeficiency virus. , 1996, Analytical chemistry.

[51]  P. D'Orazio.  Interference by thiocyanate on electrochemical biosensors for blood glucose. , 1996, Clinical chemistry.

[52]  E. Paleček,et al.  Adsorption and detection of peptide nucleic acids at carbon paste eletrodes , 1997 .

[53]  F. Caruso,et al.  2. Assembly of Alternating Polyelectrolyte and Protein Multilayer Films for Immunosensing , 1997 .

[54]  J Wang,et al.  Nucleic-acid immobilization, recognition and detection at chronopotentiometric DNA chips. , 1997, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[55]  Jose H. Hodak,et al.  Layer-by-Layer Self-Assembly of Glucose Oxidase with a Poly(allylamine)ferrocene Redox Mediator , 1997 .

[56]  P. Pandey,et al.  Peroxide biosensors and mediated electrochemical regeneration of redox enzymes. , 1997, Analytical biochemistry.

[57]  W. Kuhr,et al.  Ultrasensitive voltammetric detection of underivatized oligonucleotides and DNA. , 1997, Analytical chemistry.

[58]  M. Comtat,et al.  Amperometric biosensors for L-alanine and pyruvate assays in biological fluids , 1997 .

[59]  J Wang,et al.  Electrochemical biosensor for detecting DNA sequences from the pathogenic protozoan Cryptosporidium parvum. , 1997, Talanta.

[60]  Y. Hasebe,et al.  Highly sensitive flow detection of uric acid based on an intermediate regeneration of uricase. , 1998, The Analyst.

[61]  H. Holden Thorp,et al.  Cutting out the middleman: DNA biosensors based on electrochemical oxidation , 1998 .

[62]  B Danielsson,et al.  Development of an amperometric biosensor based on acetylcholine esterase covalently bound to a new support material. , 1998, Talanta.

[63]  Gustavo Rivas,et al.  Indicator-free electrochemical DNA hybridization biosensor , 1998 .

[64]  C. Danilowicz,et al.  Osmium complexes bearing functional groups : building blocks for integrated chemical systems , 1998 .

[65]  N. Goldsack,et al.  Molecules in focus Thrombin , 1998 .

[66]  F. Caruso,et al.  Characterization of Polyelectrolyte-Protein Multilayer Films by Atomic Force Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Fourier Transform Infrared Reflection-Absorption Spectroscopy. , 1998 .

[67]  Kagan Kerman,et al.  DNA Electrochemical Biosensor for the Detection of Short DNA Sequences Related to the Hepatitis B Virus , 1999 .

[68]  D. Caruana,et al.  Enzyme-Amplified Amperometric Detection of Hybridization and of a Single Base Pair Mutation in an 18-Base Oligonucleotide on a 7-μm-Diameter Microelectrode J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 769−774 , 1999 .

[69]  D. Caruana,et al.  Enzyme-Amplified Amperometric Detection of Hybridization and of a Single Base Pair Mutation in an 18 Base Oligonucleotide on a 7 µm Diameter Microelectrode , 1999 .

[70]  L. Gorton,et al.  The synergetIc effect of redox mediators and peroxidase in a bienzymatic biosensor for glucose assays in FIA , 1999 .

[71]  C. Danilowicz,et al.  A new self-assembled modified electrode for competitive immunoassay , 1999 .

[72]  S. Jayasena.  Aptamers: an emerging class of molecules that rival antibodies in diagnostics. , 1999, Clinical chemistry.

[73]  A. Merkoçi,et al.  Electrochemical genosensor design: immobilisation of oligonucleotides onto transducer surfaces and detection methods. , 2000, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[74]  Bansi D. Malhotra,et al.  Co-immobilization of lactate oxidase and lactate dehydrogenase on conducting polyaniline films , 2000 .

[75]  C. Danilowicz,et al.  Layer-by-layer electrostatic deposition of biomolecules on surfaces for molecular recognition, redox mediation and signal generation. , 2000, Faraday discussions.

[76]  L. Dimeglio,et al.  Disorders of phosphate metabolism. , 2000, Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America.

[77]  G J Kost,et al.  Whole-blood glucose and lactate. Trilayer biosensors, drug interference, metabolism, and practice guidelines. , 2000, Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine.

[78]  A. Hillman,et al.  EQCM studies of polypyrrole films. 1. Exposure to aqueous sodium tosylate solutions under thermodynamically permselective conditions , 2000 .

[79]  D. Centonze,et al.  Simultaneous monitoring of glucose and lactate by an interference and cross-talk free dual electrode amperometric biosensor based on electropolymerized thin films. , 2000, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[80]  Stanley Bruckenstein,et al.  EQCM studies of polypyrrole films. Part 2. Exposure to aqueous sodium tosylate solutions under thermodynamically non-permselective conditions , 2000 .

[81]  A D Ellington,et al.  In vitro selection of nucleic acids for diagnostic applications. , 2000, Journal of biotechnology.

[82]  Silvia H.P. Serrano,et al.  Electrochemical Oxidation of 8-Oxoguanine , 2000 .

[83]  P. Bartlett,et al.  Covalent attachment of osmium complexes to glucose oxidase and the application of the resulting modified enzyme in an enzyme switch responsive to glucose. , 2000, Analytical chemistry.

[84]  B. Limoges,et al.  An electrochemical metalloimmunoassay based on a colloidal gold label. , 2000, Analytical chemistry.

[85]  Joseph Wang.  SURVEY AND SUMMARY From DNA biosensors to gene chips , 2000 .

[86]  D. Centonze,et al.  Amperometric biosensors based on electrosynthesised polymeric films , 2000, Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry.

[87]  J Wang,et al.  From DNA biosensors to gene chips. , 2000, Nucleic acids research.

[88]  Frieder W. Scheller,et al.  Size Exclusion Redox‐Labeled Immunoassay (SERI): A New Format for Homogeneous Amperometric Creatinine Determination , 2000 .

[89]  R. Schasfoort,et al.  TUTORIAL REVIEW , 2001 .

[90]  A Warsinke,et al.  Research and development in biosensors. , 2001, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[91]  C. Danilowicz,et al.  Layer-by-layer self-assembly of glucose oxidase and Os(Bpy)2CIPyCH2NH-poly(allylamine) bioelectrode. , 2001, Analytical chemistry.

[92]  R. Pemberton,et al.  An electrochemical immunosensor for milk progesterone using a continuous flow system. , 2001, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[93]  J Wang,et al.  Microseparation chips for performing multienzymatic dehydrogenase/oxidase assays: simultaneous electrochemical measurement of ethanol and glucose. , 2001, Analytical chemistry.

[94]  R. Torresi,et al.  Microgravimetric study of the influence of the solvent on the redox properties of polypyrrol modified electrodes , 2001 .

[95]  C. Niemeyer.  REVIEW Nanoparticles, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids: Biotechnology Meets Materials Science , 2022 .

[96]  G Marrazza,et al.  DNA electrochemical biosensors , 2001, Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry.

[97]  D. Chan,et al.  Immunosensors--principles and applications to clinical chemistry. , 2001, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[98]  A. Ryabov,et al.  New synthesis and new bio-application of cyclometalated ruthenium(II) complexes for fast mediated electron transfer with peroxidase and glucose oxidase. , 2001, Inorganic chemistry.

[99]  F. Mizutani,et al.  Use of Polydimethylsiloxane for Constructing Amperometric Glucose-Sensing Enzyme Electrode with Low Interference Level , 2001 .

[100]  Joseph Wang,et al.  Pencil-based renewable biosensor for label-free electrochemical detection of DNA hybridization , 2001 .

[101]  J. Wang,et al.  Glucose biochip: dual analyte response in connection to two pre-column enzymatic reactions. , 2001, The Analyst.

[102]  M. Fojta,et al.  Detecting DNA hybridization and damage. , 2001, Analytical chemistry.

[103]  J Wang,et al.  Electrochemical enzyme immunoassays on microchip platforms. , 2001, Analytical chemistry.

[104]  Joseph Wang,et al.  Amplified label-free electrical detection of DNA hybridization. , 2002, The Analyst.

[105]  J. Justin Gooding,et al.  Electrochemical DNA Hybridization Biosensors , 2002 .

[106]  Ladislav Novotný,et al.  Label-free determination of picogram quantities of DNA by stripping voltammetry with solid copper amalgam or mercury electrodes in the presence of copper. , 2002, Analytical chemistry.

[107]  Dipankar Ghosh,et al.  Amperometric biosensors for detection of the prostate cancer marker (PSA). , 2002, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[108]  Christof M. Niemeyer,et al.  Nanoparticles, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids: Biotechnology Meets Materials Science. , 2001, Angewandte Chemie.

[109]  B. D. Malhotra,et al.  Mediated biosensors. , 2002, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[110]  M. Prato,et al.  A glutathione amperometric biosensor based on an amphiphilic fullerene redox mediator immobilised within an amphiphilic polypyrrole film , 2002 .

[111]  R. Kizek,et al.  DNA hybridization at microbeads with cathodic stripping voltammetric detection. , 2002, Talanta.

[112]  E. Paleček,et al.  Electrochemistry of Nucleic Acids and Development of DNA Sensors , 2002 .

[113]  R. Kizek,et al.  Voltammetric microanalysis of DNA adducts with osmium tetroxide,2,2'-bipyridine using a pyrolytic graphite electrode. , 2002, Talanta.

[114]  Joseph Wang.  Electrochemical nucleic acid biosensors , 2002 .

[115]  A. Eckhardt,et al.  Electrochemical sensor for detection of unmodified nucleic acids. , 2002, Talanta.

[116]  C. O’Sullivan.  Aptasensors – the future of biosensing? , 2002, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[117]  Michael V. Pishko,et al.  Mass transfer in amperometric biosensors based on nanocomposite thin films of redox polymers and oxidoreductases , 2002 .

[118]  M. Fojta,et al.  New approaches in the development of DNA sensors: hybridization and electrochemical detection of DNA and RNA at two different surfaces. , 2002, Bioelectrochemistry.

[119]  S. Brooks,et al.  Determination of DNA Bases Using Electrochemistry: A Discovery-Based Experiment , 2002 .

[120]  Gang Wang,et al.  Amperometric hydrogen peroxide biosensor with sol-gel/chitosan network-like film as immobilization matrix. , 2003, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[121]  R. Kizek,et al.  Two-surface strategy in electrochemical DNA hybridization assays: Detection of osmium-labeled target DNA at carbon electrodes , 2003 .

[122]  Yuzuru Takamura,et al.  Label-free electrochemical detection of DNA hybridization on gold electrode , 2003 .

[123]  T. G. Drummond,et al.  Electrochemical DNA sensors , 2003, Nature Biotechnology.

[124]  Nobuko Hamaguchi,et al.  Aptamer-based biosensor arrays for detection and quantification of biological macromolecules. , 2003, Analytical biochemistry.

[125]  Guo-Li Shen,et al.  An amperometric immunosensor based on Nafion-modified electrode for the determination of Schistosoma japonicum antibody , 2003 .

[126]  Sara Tombelli,et al.  New trends in affinity sensing: aptamers for ligand binding , 2003 .

[127]  E. Ivanova,et al.  Evaluation of redox mediators for amperometric biosensors: Ru-complex modified carbon-paste/enzyme electrodes. , 2003, Bioelectrochemistry.

[128]  Yuehe Lin,et al.  Solubilization of carbon nanotubes by Nafion toward the preparation of amperometric biosensors. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[129]  Sophie Demoustier-Champagne,et al.  Immobilisation of glucose oxidase within metallic nanotubes arrays for application to enzyme biosensors. , 2003, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[130]  Nigel Beard,et al.  Dealing with real samples: sample pre-treatment in microfluidic systems. , 2003, Lab on a chip.

[131]  P. He,et al.  Carbon nanotube-enhanced electrochemical DNA biosensor for DNA hybridization detection , 2003, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[132]  Junmin Qian,et al.  Sol–gel‐derived amperometric glucose biosensor based on covalent attachment of toluidine blue O to carrier , 2003 .

[133]  E. García-Ruiz,et al.  Recent Advances in Electropolymerized Conducting Polymers in Amperometric Biosensors , 2003 .

[134]  Zhiqiang Gao,et al.  An amperometric biosensor for glucose based on electrodeposited redox polymer/glucose oxidase film on a gold electrode. , 2003, Analytical sciences : the international journal of the Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry.

[135]  M. Meyyappan,et al.  Carbon Nanotube Nanoelectrode Array for Ultrasensitive DNA Detection , 2003 .

[136]  Guo-Li Shen,et al.  Amperometric immunosensor for Schistosoma japonicum antigen using antibodies loaded on a nano-Au monolayer modified chitosan-entrapped carbon paste electrode , 2003 .

[137]  G. Rivas,et al.  Carbon nanotubes paste electrode , 2003 .

[138]  Kagan Kerman,et al.  Recent trends in electrochemical DNA biosensor technology , 2004 .

[139]  C. Lagier,et al.  Characterization of self-assembled redox polymer and antibody molecules on thiolated gold electrodes. , 2004, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[140]  Elena E. Ferapontova,et al.  Electrochemistry of guanine and 8-oxoguanine at gold electrodes , 2004 .

[141]  Itamar Willner,et al.  Long-range electrical contacting of redox enzymes by SWCNT connectors. , 2004, Angewandte Chemie.

[142]  M. Delvaux,et al.  Electrocatalytic H2O2 amperometric detection using gold nanotube electrode ensembles , 2004 .

[143]  Neil Pasco,et al.  MICREDOX--development of a ferricyanide-mediated rapid biochemical oxygen demand method using an immobilised Proteus vulgaris biocomponent. , 2004, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[144]  G. Marrazza,et al.  Carbon and gold electrodes as electrochemical transducers for DNA hybridisation sensors. , 2004, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[145]  Yuan Hong Yu,et al.  Highly sensitive amperometric detection of genomic DNA in animal tissues. , 2004, Nucleic acids research.

[146]  G. Hsiue,et al.  Multienzyme-immobilized modified polypropylene membrane for an amperometric creatinine biosensor , 2004 .

[147]  E. García-Ruiz,et al.  Design of an Interference-Free Cholesterol Amperometric Biosensor Based on the Electrosynthesis of Polymeric Films of Diaminonaphthalene Isomers , 2004 .

[148]  R. Yu,et al.  Bienzymatic amperometric biosensor for choline based on mediator thionine in situ electropolymerized within a carbon paste electrode. , 2004, Analytical biochemistry.

[149]  Elena Domínguez,et al.  Electrochemical DNA sensors based on enzyme dendritic architectures: an approach for enhanced sensitivity. , 2004, Analytical chemistry.

[150]  Jun Li,et al.  Miniaturized multiplex label-free electronic chip for rapid nucleic acid analysis based on carbon nanotube nanoelectrode arrays. , 2004, Clinical chemistry.

[151]  H. Ledebur,et al.  A mammalian artificial chromosome engineering system (ACE System) applicable to biopharmaceutical protein production, transgenesis and gene-based cell therapy. , 2004, Nucleic acids research.

[152]  Maria Minunni,et al.  Towards fast and inexpensive molecular diagnostic: the case of TP53. , 2004, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[153]  Feng Yan,et al.  A disposable amperometric immunosensor for alpha-1-fetoprotein based on enzyme-labeled antibody/chitosan-membrane-modified screen-printed carbon electrode. , 2004, Analytical biochemistry.

[154]  H. Xie,et al.  Amperometric detection of nucleic acid at femtomolar levels with a nucleic acid/electrochemical activator bilayer on gold electrode. , 2004, Analytical chemistry.

[155]  P. Gros,et al.  A bioelectrochemical polypyrrole-containing Fe(CN)6(3-) interface for the design of a NAD-dependent reagentless biosensor. , 2004, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[156]  G. Shen,et al.  A new electrochemical immunoassay strategy for detection of transferrin based on electrostatic interaction of natural polymers. , 2004, Talanta.

[157]  Koji Sode,et al.  Novel electrochemical sensor system for protein using the aptamers in sandwich manner. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[158]  H Wieder,et al.  DNA-arrays with electrical detection: a label-free low cost technology for routine use in life sciences and diagnostics. , 2005, Bioelectrochemistry.

[159]  C. Roodveldt,et al.  Use of Full-Length Recombinant Calflagin and Its C Fragment for Improvement of Diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection , 2005, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[160]  Keiichi Kaneto,et al.  An amperometric urea biosensor based on covalent immobilization of urease onto an electrochemically prepared copolymer poly (N-3-aminopropyl pyrrole-co-pyrrole) film. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[161]  Yan Liu,et al.  New amperometric and potentiometric immunosensors based on gold nanoparticles/tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)cobalt(III) multilayer films for hepatitis B surface antigen determinations. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[162]  A. Turner,et al.  Home blood glucose biosensors: a commercial perspective. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[163]  P. A. Fiorito,et al.  Hybrid nickel hexacyanoferrate/polypyrrole composite as mediator for hydrogen peroxide detection and its application in oxidase-based biosensors , 2005 .

[164]  K. Jain,et al.  Nanotechnology in clinical laboratory diagnostics. , 2005, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[165]  Christopher M.A. Brett,et al.  A glucose biosensor using methyl viologen redox mediator on carbon film electrodes , 2005 .

[166]  C. Lagier,et al.  Film resonance on acoustic wave devices: the roles of frequency and contacting fluid. , 2005, Analytical chemistry.

[167]  M. Mir,et al.  Towards a fast-responding, label-free electrochemical DNA biosensor , 2005, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[168]  René Kizek,et al.  Study of Metallothionein Modified Electrode Surface Behavior in the Presence of Heavy Metal Ions‐Biosensor , 2005 .

[169]  Hideko Yamanaka,et al.  Immunosensor for the diagnosis of Chagas' disease. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[170]  A. L. Stevens,et al.  Million-fold preconcentration of proteins and peptides by nanofluidic filter. , 2005, Analytical chemistry.

[171]  M. Mascini,et al.  Analytical applications of aptamers. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[172]  Takanori Matsuura,et al.  Amperometric DNA sensor using gold electrode modified with polymerized mediator by layer-by-layer adsorption , 2005 .

[173]  Agustín Costa-García,et al.  Genosensor on gold films with enzymatic electrochemical detection of a SARS virus sequence☆ , 2005, Biosensors and Bioelectronics.

[174]  Joseph Wang.  Nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors. , 2005, The Analyst.

[175]  Xiaobo Yu,et al.  Label-free electrochemical detection for aptamer-based array electrodes. , 2005, Analytical chemistry.

[176]  Kristen L. Helton,et al.  Microfluidic Overview of Global Health Issues Microfluidic Diagnostic Technologies for Global Public Health , 2006 .

[177]  Ioanis Katakis,et al.  Different strategies to develop an electrochemical thrombin aptasensor , 2006 .

[178]  Yuzuru Takamura,et al.  Label-free electrochemical immunoassay for the detection of human chorionic gonadotropin hormone. , 2006, Analytical chemistry.

[179]  M. Suchard,et al.  Use of Electrochemical DNA Biosensors for Rapid Molecular Identification of Uropathogens in Clinical Urine Specimens , 2006, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[180]  Yun Xiang,et al.  Quantum-dot/aptamer-based ultrasensitive multi-analyte electrochemical biosensor. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[181]  Kagan Kerman,et al.  Label-free bioelectronic immunoassay for the detection of human telomerase reverse transcriptase in urine , 2006 .

[182]  S. S. Cho,et al.  Gold Nanoparticle‐Based Mediatorless Biosensor Prepared on Microporous Electrode , 2006 .

[183]  Antje J Baeumner,et al.  Electrochemical microfluidic biosensor for the detection of nucleic acid sequences. , 2006, Lab on a chip.

[184]  M. E. Ribone,et al.  Design, Construction, and Evaluation of a Specific Chimeric Antigen To Diagnose Chagasic Infection , 2006, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[185]  P. A. Fiorito,et al.  Design of molecular wires based on supramolecular structures for application in glucose biosensors. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[186]  Ciara K O'Sullivan,et al.  Reagentless, reusable, ultrasensitive electrochemical molecular beacon aptasensor. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[187]  Avraham Rasooly,et al.  Development of biosensors for cancer clinical testing. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[188]  P. A. Fiorito,et al.  Polypyrrole/copper hexacyanoferrate hybrid as redox mediator for glucose biosensors. , 2006, Talanta.

[189]  Charles M. Lieber,et al.  Nanowire-based biosensors. , 2006, Analytical chemistry.

[190]  Ashok Mulchandani,et al.  Nanowire‐Based Electrochemical Biosensors , 2006 .

[191]  Joseph Wang,et al.  Point-of-care biosensor systems for cancer diagnostics/prognostics. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[192]  Jing-Juan Xu,et al.  Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Layer‐by‐Layer Assemblies , 2006 .

[193]  René Kizek,et al.  Cisplatin electrochemical biosensor , 2006 .

[194]  Joseph Wang,et al.  Electrochemical biosensors: towards point-of-care cancer diagnostics. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[195]  Yingfu Li,et al.  Nucleic acid aptamers and enzymes as sensors. , 2006, Current opinion in chemical biology.

[196]  A. Heeger,et al.  An electronic, aptamer-based small-molecule sensor for the rapid, label-free detection of cocaine in adulterated samples and biological fluids. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[197]  René Kizek,et al.  Attomole voltammetric determination of metallothionein , 2006 .

[198]  高田 昌幸.  Label-free bioelectronic immunoassay for the detection of human telomerase reverse transcriptase in urine , 2006 .

[199]  Itamar Willner,et al.  Electrical contacting of redox proteins by nanotechnological means. , 2006, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[200]  Andreas Manz,et al.  Scaling and the design of miniaturized chemical-analysis systems , 2006, Nature.

[201]  D. Barrettino,et al.  Design considerations and recent advances in CMOS-based microsystems for point-of-care clinical diagnostics , 2006, 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems.

[202]  M. S. Belluzo,et al.  Amperometric bioelectrode for specific human immunoglobulin G determination: optimization of the method to diagnose American trypanosomiasis. , 2006, Analytical biochemistry.

[203]  R. Hintsche,et al.  Micromachined sensor for lactate monitoring in saliva. , 2006, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[204]  N. Pourmand,et al.  Label-Free Impedance Biosensors: Opportunities and Challenges. , 2007, Electroanalysis.

[205]  Hongxia Chen,et al.  Comparative Study of Protein Immobilization Properties on Calixarene Monolayers , 2007, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland).

[206]  Mun'delanji C. Vestergaard,et al.  An Overview of Label-free Electrochemical Protein Sensors , 2007, Sensors.

[207]  M. Mascini,et al.  Aptamers-based assays for diagnostics, environmental and food analysis. , 2007, Biomolecular engineering.

[208]  Evangelyn C. Alocilja,et al.  Indium Tin Oxide-Polyaniline Biosensor: Fabrication and Characterization , 2007, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland).

[209]  Wei Chen,et al.  Electrochemical DNA biosensor for the detection of short DNA species of Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia by using methylene blue. , 2007, Talanta.

[210]  Chunhai Fan,et al.  Electrochemical Interrogation of Interactions between Surface-Confined DNA and Methylene Blue , 2007, Sensors.

[211]  Martin Pumera,et al.  Electrochemical nanobiosensors , 2007 .

[212]  B. Jena,et al.  Amperometric L‐Lactate Biosensor Based on Gold Nanoparticles , 2007 .

[213]  Hongxia Chen,et al.  Enhancement of BSA Binding on Au Surfaces by calix[4]bisazacrown Monolayer , 2007, Sensors.

[214]  H. Nam,et al.  A rapid competitive binding nonseparation electrochemical enzyme immunoassay (NEEIA) test strip for microcystin-LR (MCLR) determination. , 2007, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[215]  M. Gu,et al.  Electrochemical detection of 17β-estradiol using DNA aptamer immobilized gold electrode chip , 2007 .

[216]  Fernando Rodrigues Ribeiro Teles,et al.  Electrochemical Detection of a Dengue-related Oligonucleotide Sequence Using Ferrocenium as a Hybridization Indicator , 2007, Sensors.

[217]  Guang Li,et al.  A Hydrogen Peroxide Sensor Prepared by Electropolymerization of Pyrrole Based on Screen-Printed Carbon Paste Electrodes , 2007, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland).

[218]  Robert D. O'Neill,et al.  Modifications of Poly(o-phenylenediamine) Permselective Layer on Pt-Ir for Biosensor Application in Neurochemical Monitoring , 2007, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland).

[219]  Nicole Jaffrezic-Renault,et al.  Biosensors and Bio-Bar Code Assays Based on Biofunctionalized Magnetic Microbeads , 2007, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland).

[220]  Greg E Collins,et al.  Sandwich electrochemical immunoassay for the detection of Staphylococcal enterotoxin B based on immobilized thiolated antibodies. , 2007, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[221]  A. Gopalan,et al.  Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) Immobilized Poly(aniline-co-m-aminophenol) Film Electrodes–fabrication and Evaluation as Hydrogen Peroxide Sensor , 2007, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland).

[222]  Sonia Centi,et al.  Analytical performances of aptamer-based sensing for thrombin detection. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[223]  Itamar Willner,et al.  Electronic aptamer-based sensors. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[224]  L. Nie,et al.  A label-free electrochemical immunoassay for carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and nonconductive polymer film. , 2007, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[225]  Sung-Hyun Lee,et al.  A novel approach to ultrasensitive diagnosis using supramolecular protein nanoparticles , 2007, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[226]  S. K. Rasmussen,et al.  Manufacture of recombinant polyclonal antibodies , 2007, Biotechnology Letters.

[227]  E. Tamiya,et al.  Label-free immunosensor for prostate-specific antigen based on single-walled carbon nanotube array-modified microelectrodes. , 2007, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[228]  Joseph Wang.  Electrochemical glucose biosensors. , 2008, Chemical reviews.