Virtual Reality Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Due to Motor Vehicle Accident

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a complex, multifaceted disorder encompassing behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and physiological factors. Although PTSD was only codified in 1980, there has been an increasing interest in this area of research. Unfortunately, relatively little attention has been given to the psychological treatment of motor vehicle accident survivors, which is remarkable because vehicular collisions are deemed the number one cause of PTSD. As the emotional consequences of vehicular collisions prevail, so does the need for more effective treatments. Randomized controlled clinical trials have identified exposure-based therapies as being the most efficacious for extinguishing fears. One type of exposure-based treatment, called virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET), provides a safe, controlled, and effective therapeutic alternative that is not dependent on real-life props, situations, or even a person's imagination capabilities. This modality, while relatively new, has been implemented successfully in the treatment of a variety of anxiety disorders and may offer a particularly beneficial and intermediary step for the treatment of collision-related PTSD. In particular, VRET combined with physiological monitoring and feedback provides a unique opportunity for individuals to objectively recognize both anxiety and relaxation; learn how to manage their anxiety during difficult, albeit simulated, driving conditions; and then transfer these skills onto real-life roadways.

[1]  Dong Pyo Jang,et al.  Physiological Monitoring as an Objective Tool in Virtual Reality Therapy , 2002, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[2]  D J Butler,et al.  Post-traumatic stress reactions following motor vehicle accidents. , 1999, American family physician.

[3]  Stéphane Bouchard,et al.  Anxiety and Presence during VR Immersion: A Comparative Study of the Reactions of Phobic and Non-phobic Participants in Therapeutic Virtual Environments Derived from Computer Games , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[4]  Brenda K. Wiederhold,et al.  Clinical Observations During Virtual Reality Therapy for Specific Phobias , 1999, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[5]  A. Taylor,et al.  The psychophysiology of motor vehicle accident related posttraumatic stress disorder , 1991, Biofeedback and self-regulation.

[6]  E. Foa,et al.  Psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: a critical review. , 1997, Annual review of psychology.

[7]  Jacques Donders,et al.  After the Crash: Assessment and Treatment of Motor Vehicle Accident Survivors , 1998 .

[8]  Brenda K. Wiederhold,et al.  Fear of Flying: A Case Report Using Virtual Reality Therapy with Physiological Monitoring , 1998, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[9]  E. Blanchard,et al.  Short-term follow-up of post-traumatic stress symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. , 1995, Behaviour research and therapy.

[10]  D. Brom,et al.  Brief psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorders. , 1989, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[11]  Norman I. Badler,et al.  MediSim: simulated medical corpsmen and casualties for medical forces planning and training , 1995, Proceedings of the National Forum: Military Telemedicine On-Line Today Research, Practice, and Opportunities.

[12]  F Vincelli,et al.  Virtual reality and imaginative techniques in clinical psychology. , 1998, Studies in health technology and informatics.

[13]  Edna B. Foa,et al.  The impact of fear activation and anger on the efficacy of exposure treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. , 1995 .

[14]  G. Breithardt,et al.  Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. , 1996 .

[15]  A. Malliani,et al.  Heart rate variability. Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use , 1996 .

[16]  Benjamin Watson,et al.  Virtually conquering fear of flying , 1996, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[17]  Richard Mayou,et al.  Psychiatric consequences of road traffic accidents. , 1993, BMJ.

[18]  Alvin,et al.  Thesaurus of psychological index terms, 7th ed. , 1994 .

[19]  R. Hu.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) , 2003 .

[20]  F H Norris,et al.  Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. , 1992, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[21]  Steven Taylor,et al.  Comparative efficacy of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis , 1998 .

[22]  Dong Pyo Jang,et al.  Objective Validation of the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Psychotherapy , 2000, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[23]  Joseph Wolpe,et al.  In vivo desensitization of a severe driving phobia through radiO contact , 1980 .

[24]  Steven Taylor,et al.  Anxiety disorders due to motor vehicle accidents: Nature and treatment , 1995 .

[25]  Sun I. Kim,et al.  Virtually Driving: Are the Driving Environments "Real Enough" for Exposure Therapy with Accident Victims? An Explorative Study , 2005, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[26]  R. Baños,et al.  Virtual reality: a new clinical setting lab. , 1998, Studies in health technology and informatics.

[27]  D. Rickwood,et al.  Promoting Youth Mental Health through Computer-Mediated Communication , 2010 .

[28]  D. Reitman,et al.  Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy , 2005 .

[29]  Brenda K. Wiederhold,et al.  Lessons Learned From 600 Virtual Reality Sessions , 2000, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[30]  William M. Kurtines,et al.  Predictors of outcome in exposure-based cognitive and behavioral treatments for phobic and anxiety disorders in children* , 2000 .

[31]  Dong Pyo Jang,et al.  Use of Cellular Telephone Therapy for Fear of Driving , 2000, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[32]  E. Blanchard,et al.  Antecedents and consequences of acute stress disorder among motor vehicle accident victims. , 1996, Behaviour research and therapy.

[33]  S. Solomon,et al.  Efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. An empirical review. , 1992, JAMA.

[34]  Larry F. Hodges,et al.  A Virtual Environment for the Treatment of Chronic Combat-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder , 1999, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[35]  G. Adshead.  Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder , 2000, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[36]  J. Wolpe,et al.  ISOLATION OF A CONDITIONING PROCEDURE AS THE CRUCIAL PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC FACTOR: A CASE STUDY , 1962, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[37]  A. Taylor,et al.  Psychological morbidity associated with motor vehicle accidents. , 1994, Behaviour research and therapy.

[38]  A. Taylor,et al.  Psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder related to motor vehicle accidents: replication and extension. , 1996, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[39]  E. Hickling,et al.  Psychiatric Morbidity Associated with Motor Vehicle Accidents , 1995, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[40]  S R Paige.  Current perspectives on posttraumatic stress disorder: From the clinic and the laboratory , 1997, Integrative physiological and behavioral science : the official journal of the Pavlovian Society.

[41]  A. Rizzo,et al.  Basic issues in the use of virtual environments for mental health applications. , 1998, Studies in health technology and informatics.

[42]  S. Williams,et al.  Comparative effectiveness of guided mastery and exposure treatments for intractable phobias. , 1984, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[43]  Sun I. Kim,et al.  Exploring the Use of Computer Games and Virtual Reality in Exposure Therapy for Fear of Driving Following a Motor Vehicle Accident , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[44]  K Kuch,et al.  Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder after Car Accidents , 1985, Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie.

[45]  E. Blanchard,et al.  A prospective examination of delayed onset PTSD secondary to motor vehicle accidents. , 1996, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[46]  A. Honig,et al.  Physical health and unmet needs , 1990 .

[47]  G. Riva,et al.  Virtual Environments in Clinical Psychology and Neuroscience: Methods and Techniques in Advanced Patient-Therapist Interaction , 1998 .

[48]  E. Winer,et al.  Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for PTSD symptoms after a road accident: an uncontrolled case series. , 2007, Behavior therapy.

[49]  M. North,et al.  Virtual reality therapy: an effective treatment for phobias. , 1998, Studies in health technology and informatics.

[50]  A. Baum,et al.  Acute and chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in motor vehicle accident victims. , 1999, The American journal of psychiatry.

[51]  R. Yehuda.  POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER , 1985, The Lancet.

[52]  D. Brom,et al.  Victims of traffic accidents: incidence and prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. , 1993, Journal of clinical psychology.

[53]  C A Forneris,et al.  Who develops PTSD from motor vehicle accidents? , 1996, Behaviour research and therapy.

[54]  R A Bryant,et al.  Avoidant coping style and post-traumatic stress following motor vehicle accidents. , 1995, Behaviour research and therapy.