Review on gold nanoparticles and their applications

Gold nanoparticles are widely used in many fields as preferred materials for their unique optical and physical properties, such as surface plasmon oscillations for labeling, imaging, and sensing. Recently, many advancements were made in biomedical applications with better biocompatibility in disease diagnosis and therapeutics. Au-NPs could be prepared and conjugated with many functionalizing agents, such as polymers, surfactants, ligands, dendrimers, drugs, DNA, RNA, proteins, peptides and oligonucleotides. This review addressed the use of gold nanoparticles and the surface functionalization with a wide range of molecules, expanding and improving gold nanoparticles in targeting drugs for photothermal therapy with reduced cytotoxic effcts in various cancers, gene therapy and many other diseases. Overall, Au-NPs would be a promising vehicle for drug delivery and therapies.

[1]  J. Bischof,et al.  TNF-α–based accentuation in cryoinjury—dose, delivery, and response , 2007, Molecular Cancer Therapeutics.

[2]  Manuela Semmler-Behnke,et al.  Biodistribution of 1.4- and 18-nm gold particles in rats. , 2008, Small.

[3]  Wolfgang J Parak,et al.  Laser-induced release of encapsulated materials inside living cells. , 2006, Angewandte Chemie.

[4]  Sung-Wook Choi,et al.  Surface Modification of Functional Nanoparticles for Controlled Drug Delivery , 2003 .

[5]  L. A. Baker,et al.  Preparation and characterization of dendrimer-gold colloid nanocomposites. , 1999, Analytical chemistry.

[6]  M. Faraday.  X. The Bakerian Lecture. —Experimental relations of gold (and other metals) to light , 1857, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.

[7]  J. Hillier,et al.  A study of the nucleation and growth processes in the synthesis of colloidal gold , 1951 .

[8]  John C. Bischof,et al.  Enhancement of tumor thermal therapy using gold nanoparticle–assisted tumor necrosis factor-α delivery , 2006, Molecular Cancer Therapeutics.

[9]  P. Luo,et al.  Nanotechnology in the detection and control of microorganisms. , 2008, Advances in applied microbiology.

[10]  Charles DiMarzio,et al.  Surface functionalization of gold nanoparticles using hetero-bifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) spacer for intracellular tracking and delivery , 2006, International journal of nanomedicine.

[11]  Chitta Ranjan Patra,et al.  Fabrication of gold nanoparticles for targeted therapy in pancreatic cancer. , 2010, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[12]  D. P. O'Neal,et al.  Photo-thermal tumor ablation in mice using near infrared-absorbing nanoparticles. , 2004, Cancer letters.

[13]  Michael A Horton,et al.  Medical nanotechnology in the UK: a perspective from the London Centre for Nanotechnology. , 2006, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[14]  Kort Travis,et al.  Polarization microscopy with stellated gold nanoparticles for robust monitoring of molecular assemblies and single biomolecules. , 2008, Optics express.

[15]  J. Mendelsohn.  Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibition by a monoclonal antibody as anticancer therapy. , 1997, Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research.

[16]  Ji-Xin Cheng,et al.  Gold Nanorods as Contrast Agents for Biological Imaging: Optical Properties, Surface Conjugation and Photothermal Effects † , 2009, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[17]  Bing Xu,et al.  Presenting Vancomycin on Nanoparticles to Enhance Antimicrobial Activities , 2003 .

[18]  Arezou A Ghazani,et al.  Determining the size and shape dependence of gold nanoparticle uptake into mammalian cells. , 2006, Nano letters.

[19]  J. Hafner,et al.  Optical properties of star-shaped gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Nano letters.

[20]  Sandra C. Mwakwari,et al.  Historic perspective on the use of AuNPs in medicine , 2008 .

[21]  J. Alexander,et al.  Colloids and the Ultramicroscope: A Manual of Colloid Chemistry and Ultramicroscopy , 2007 .

[22]  S. Pecorelli,et al.  Optimizing gemcitabine regimens in ovarian cancer. , 2006, Seminars in oncology.

[23]  R. Langer,et al.  Designing materials for biology and medicine , 2004, Nature.

[24]  C. Murphy,et al.  Gold nanoparticles are taken up by human cells but do not cause acute cytotoxicity. , 2005, Small.

[25]  J. Luong,et al.  Assessment of cytotoxicity of quantum dots and gold nanoparticles using cell-based impedance spectroscopy. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[26]  E. Vries,et al.  Impact of intracellular chloride concentration on cisplatin accumulation in sensitive and resistant GLC4 cells , 2008, JBIC Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry.

[27]  Fei Le,et al.  Nanorice: a hybrid plasmonic nanostructure. , 2006, Nano letters.

[28]  May D. Wang,et al.  In vivo tumor targeting and spectroscopic detection with surface-enhanced Raman nanoparticle tags , 2008, Nature Biotechnology.

[29]  Photochemical Reaction of Poly(ethylene glycol) on Gold Nanorods Induced by Near Infrared Pulsed-laser Irradiation , 2009 .

[30]  O. Schmid,et al.  Effects and uptake of gold nanoparticles deposited at the air-liquid interface of a human epithelial airway model. , 2010, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[31]  C. Mirkin,et al.  Nanoparticles with Raman spectroscopic fingerprints for DNA and RNA detection. , 2002, Science.

[32]  Younan Xia,et al.  Gold nanostructures: engineering their plasmonic properties for biomedical applications. , 2006, Chemical Society reviews.

[33]  D. Mukhopadhyay,et al.  Targeted delivery of gemcitabine to pancreatic adenocarcinoma using cetuximab as a targeting agent. , 2008, Cancer research.

[34]  Jae Hee Song,et al.  Photochemical synthesis of gold nanorods. , 2002, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[35]  Mohan Srinivasarao,et al.  Colloidal dispersion of gold nanorods: Historical background, optical properties, seed-mediated synthesis, shape separation and self-assembly , 2009 .

[36]  S. L. Westcott,et al.  Infrared extinction properties of gold nanoshells , 1999 .

[37]  Naomi J. Halas,et al.  Nanoengineering of optical resonances , 1998 .

[38]  S. Hsu,et al.  Cytotoxicity and immunological response of gold and silver nanoparticles of different sizes. , 2009, Small.

[39]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  An Improved Synthesis of High‐Aspect‐Ratio Gold Nanorods , 2003 .

[40]  J. Mendelsohn.  The epidermal growth factor receptor as a target for cancer therapy. , 2001, Endocrine-Related Cancer.

[41]  Vincent M Rotello,et al.  Gold nanoparticles in delivery applications. , 2008, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[42]  Shuk Han Cheng,et al.  Nuclear penetration of surface functionalized gold nanoparticles. , 2009, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[43]  J. R. Hepburn.  The Liesegang Phenomenon—an Historical Note , 1923, Nature.

[44]  S. Gambhir,et al.  Noninvasive molecular imaging of small living subjects using Raman spectroscopy , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[45]  Hao Hong,et al.  Applications of gold nanoparticles in cancer nanotechnology. , 2008, Nanotechnology, science and applications.

[46]  Hui Chen,et al.  A one-step homogeneous immunoassay for cancer biomarker detection using gold nanoparticle probes coupled with dynamic light scattering. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[47]  J L West,et al.  Applications of nanotechnology to biotechnology commentary. , 2000, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[48]  A. Jacobs.  Gemcitabine‐based therapy in pancreas cancer , 2002, Cancer.

[49]  K. Jauch,et al.  Tyrosine kinase inhibitors and gemcitabine: new treatment options in pancreatic cancer? , 2006, Drug resistance updates : reviews and commentaries in antimicrobial and anticancer chemotherapy.

[50]  G. Frens.  Controlled nucleation for the regulation of the particle size in monodisperse gold solutions , 1973 .

[51]  P. Gupta,et al.  Hydrogels: from controlled release to pH-responsive drug delivery. , 2002, Drug discovery today.

[52]  Younan Xia,et al.  Shape-Controlled Synthesis of Gold and Silver Nanoparticles , 2002, Science.

[53]  G. Adair.  A Critical Study of the Direct Method of Measuring the Osmotic Pressure of Haemoglobin , 1925 .

[54]  Naomi J Halas,et al.  Nanoshell-enabled photothermal cancer therapy: impending clinical impact. , 2008, Accounts of chemical research.

[55]  Benno Radt,et al.  Optically Addressable Nanostructured Capsules , 2004 .

[56]  David A Jaffray,et al.  Cellular uptake and transport of gold nanoparticles incorporated in a liposomal carrier. , 2010, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[57]  Vincent M Rotello,et al.  Functionalized gold nanoparticles for drug delivery. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[58]  R. Crooks,et al.  PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF 1?2 NM DENDRIMER-ENCAPSULATED GOLD NANOPARTICLES HAVING VERY NARROW SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS , 2004 .

[59]  Peter Eaton,et al.  Gold nanoparticles for the development of clinical diagnosis methods , 2008, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[60]  Ann Thayer,et al.  Building up nanotech research , 2007 .

[61]  R. Singal,et al.  EGFR targeting of solid tumors. , 2007, Cancer control : journal of the Moffitt Cancer Center.

[62]  Leon Hirsch,et al.  Nanoshell-Enabled Photonics-Based Imaging and Therapy of Cancer , 2004, Technology in cancer research & treatment.

[63]  C. Schönenberger,et al.  Aqueous Gold Sols of Rod-Shaped Particles , 1997 .

[64]  R. Fåhraeus,et al.  A NEW METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF THE PROTEINS , 1926 .

[65]  Qizhi Zhang,et al.  Gold nanoparticles as a contrast agent for in vivo tumor imaging with photoacoustic tomography , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[66]  L. Kèlland,et al.  The resurgence of platinum-based cancer chemotherapy , 2007, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[67]  Svedberg Svedberg.  The Formation of Colloids , 2007, Nature.

[68]  Duncan Graham,et al.  Gold Nanoparticles for the Improved Anticancer Drug Delivery of the Active Component of Oxaliplatin , 2010, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[69]  S. L. Westcott,et al.  Temperature-sensitive polymer-nanoshell composites for photothermally modulated drug delivery. , 2000, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[70]  F. M. Huennekens,et al.  The methotrexate story: a paradigm for development of cancer chemotherapeutic agents. , 1994, Advances in enzyme regulation.

[71]  R. Zsigmondy.  Colloids and the Ultramicroscope , 2007 .

[72]  S. Mocellin,et al.  TNF and cancer: the two sides of the coin. , 2008, Frontiers in bioscience : a journal and virtual library.

[73]  Wei Qian,et al.  Ultrafast cooling of photoexcited electrons in gold nanoparticle-thiolated DNA conjugates involves the dissociation of the gold-thiol bond. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[74]  J. Frangioni.  In vivo near-infrared fluorescence imaging. , 2003, Current opinion in chemical biology.

[75]  David Thompson.  Michael Faraday's recognition of ruby gold: the birth of modern nanotechnology , 2007 .

[76]  Chao-Liang Wu,et al.  Methotrexate conjugated to gold nanoparticles inhibits tumor growth in a syngeneic lung tumor model. , 2007, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[77]  T. Niidome,et al.  The effects of PEG grafting level and injection dose on gold nanorod biodistribution in the tumor-bearing mice. , 2009, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[78]  H. Friess,et al.  Growth factor receptors are differentially expressed in cancers of the papilla of vater and pancreas. , 1999, Annals of surgery.

[79]  T. Pradeep,et al.  Investigations of the antibacterial properties of ciprofloxacin@SiO2. , 2006, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[80]  Jürgen Popp,et al.  SERS: a versatile tool in chemical and biochemical diagnostics , 2008, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[81]  J. Mendelsohn,et al.  Biological effects in vitro of monoclonal antibodies to human epidermal growth factor receptors. , 1983, Molecular biology & medicine.

[82]  Dakrong Pissuwan,et al.  The forthcoming applications of gold nanoparticles in drug and gene delivery systems. , 2011, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[83]  A. Dasgupta,et al.  In Vitro Structural and Functional Evaluation of Gold Nanoparticles Conjugated Antibiotics , 2007, Nanoscale Research Letters.

[84]  Sabine Neuss,et al.  Gold nanoparticles of diameter 1.4 nm trigger necrosis by oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. , 2009, Small.

[85]  Wei-Cheng Lai,et al.  Electrochemical Synthesis and Optical Properties of Gold Nanorods , 2001 .

[86]  Dong Wang,et al.  Cellular processing of platinum anticancer drugs , 2005, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.

[87]  Naomi J Halas,et al.  Nanoshells made easy: improving Au layer growth on nanoparticle surfaces. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[88]  Bong Hyun Chung,et al.  Acute toxicity and pharmacokinetics of 13 nm-sized PEG-coated gold nanoparticles. , 2009, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[89]  M. Yacamán,et al.  Multiple Twinned Gold Nanorods Grown by Bio-reduction Techniques , 2001 .

[90]  Latha A. Gearheart,et al.  Anisotropic Chemical Reactivity of Gold Spheroids and Nanorods , 2002 .

[91]  T. Svedberg.  Colloid chemistry , 1928 .

[92]  A. Suzuki,et al.  Preparation of Gold Colloids with UV Irradiation Using Dendrimers as Stabilizer , 1998 .

[93]  Dakrong Pissuwan,et al.  Prospects for Gold Nanorod Particles in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications , 2008, Biotechnology & genetic engineering reviews.

[94]  V. Rotello,et al.  Multi-functional gold nanoparticles for drug delivery. , 2007, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[95]  Catrin Tudur Smith,et al.  Gemcitabine based combination chemotherapy in advanced pancreatic cancer-indirect comparison , 2008, BMC Cancer.

[96]  Takuro Niidome,et al.  Surface modification of gold nanorods using layer-by-layer technique for cellular uptake , 2008 .

[97]  Yanli Liu,et al.  Synthesis, stability, and cellular internalization of gold nanoparticles containing mixed peptide-poly(ethylene glycol) monolayers. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[98]  Hamidreza Ghandehari,et al.  Cellular uptake and toxicity of gold nanoparticles in prostate cancer cells: a comparative study of rods and spheres , 2009, Journal of applied toxicology : JAT.

[99]  D. Astruc,et al.  Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum‐Size‐Related Properties, and Applications Toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology. , 2004 .

[100]  T. Allen,et al.  Targeted delivery of anti-CD19 liposomal doxorubicin in B-cell lymphoma: a comparison of whole monoclonal antibody, Fab' fragments and single chain Fv. , 2008, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[101]  Corey Radloff,et al.  Metal nanoshell assembly on a virus bioscaffold. , 2005, Nano letters.

[102]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  Wet Chemical Synthesis of High Aspect Ratio Cylindrical Gold Nanorods , 2001 .

[103]  M. Amiji,et al.  Poly(ethylene glycol)-modified thiolated gelatin nanoparticles for glutathione-responsive intracellular DNA delivery. , 2007, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[104]  Audrey Player,et al.  Nanotechnology, nanomedicine, and the development of new, effective therapies for cancer. , 2005, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[105]  J. Philpot.  The Ultracentrifuge , 1943, Nature.

[106]  Prashant K. Jain,et al.  Plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT) using gold nanoparticles , 2008, Lasers in Medical Science.

[107]  Parag Aggarwal,et al.  Interaction of colloidal gold nanoparticles with human blood: effects on particle size and analysis of plasma protein binding profiles. , 2009, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[108]  K. Sun,et al.  Characterization of crystalline dendrimer-stabilized gold nanoparticles , 2006 .

[109]  Ann Thayer.  BUILDING UP NANOTECH RESEARCH: Investments in CENTERS AND INSTITUTES underpin interdisciplinary efforts , 2007 .

[110]  G. Mie.  Beiträge zur Optik trüber Medien, speziell kolloidaler Metallösungen , 1908 .

[111]  Gerd Ritter,et al.  PEGylated gold nanoparticles conjugated to monoclonal F19 antibodies as targeted labeling agents for human pancreatic carcinoma tissue. , 2008, ACS nano.

[112]  Hui Zhang,et al.  Gold nanocages: bioconjugation and their potential use as optical imaging contrast agents. , 2005, Nano letters.

[113]  John A Rogers,et al.  Nanostructured plasmonic sensors. , 2008, Chemical reviews.

[114]  S. Lippard,et al.  Inhibition of transcription by platinum antitumor compounds. , 2009, Metallomics : integrated biometal science.

[115]  T. Yogo,et al.  Synthesis of Dendrimer-Passivated Noble Metal Nanoparticles in a Polar Medium: Comparison of Size between Silver and Gold Particles , 2001 .

[116]  O. Velev,et al.  Characterization and optimization of gold nanoparticle-based silver-enhanced immunoassays. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[117]  Cheng-Dah Chen,et al.  The Shape Transition of Gold Nanorods , 1999 .

[118]  S. Reed,et al.  Improved Synthesis of Small (dCORE ≈ 1.5 nm) Phosphine-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles , 2000 .

[119]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  Seed‐Mediated Growth Approach for Shape‐Controlled Synthesis of Spheroidal and Rod‐like Gold Nanoparticles Using a Surfactant Template , 2001 .

[120]  Paul Mulvaney,et al.  Preparation of ordered colloid monolayers by electrophoretic deposition , 1993 .

[121]  Giulio F. Paciotti,et al.  Colloidal gold nanoparticles: a novel nanoparticle platform for developing multifunctional tumor‐targeted drug delivery vectors , 2006 .

[122]  L. Dykman,et al.  On the Enhanced Antibacterial Activity of Antibiotics Mixed with Gold Nanoparticles , 2009, Nanoscale research letters.

[123]  Younan Xia,et al.  Alloying and Dealloying Processes Involved in the Preparation of Metal Nanoshells through a Galvanic Replacement Reaction , 2003 .

[124]  T. Niidome,et al.  PNIPAM gel-coated gold nanorods for targeted delivery responding to a near-infrared laser. , 2009, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[125]  G. Adair.  The Osmotic Pressure of Haemoglobin in the Absence of Salts , 1925 .

[126]  James R. Heath,et al.  Synthesis and Characterization of Hydrophobic, Organically-Soluble Gold Nanocrystals Functionalized with Primary Amines , 1996 .

[127]  D. Jaffray,et al.  Intracellular uptake, transport, and processing of nanostructures in cancer cells. , 2009, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[128]  A. Mieszawska,et al.  Gold Nanorods Grown Directly on Surfaces from Microscale Patterns of Gold Seeds , 2005 .

[129]  Manfred T. Reetz,et al.  Size-Selective Synthesis of Nanostructured Transition Metal Clusters , 1994 .

[130]  R. V. Omkumar,et al.  Growth of gold nanoparticles in human cells. , 2005, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[131]  J. Norton,et al.  The Chemistry of Colloids , 2008 .

[132]  Hao Hong,et al.  Applications of gold nanoparticles in cancer nanotechnology. , 2008, Nanotechnology, science and applications.

[133]  Joseph M. McLellan,et al.  Facile synthesis of gold-silver nanocages with controllable pores on the surface. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[134]  D B Evans,et al.  Epidermal growth factor receptor blockade with C225 plus gemcitabine results in regression of human pancreatic carcinoma growing orthotopically in nude mice by antiangiogenic mechanisms. , 2000, Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research.

[135]  L. Kelemen,et al.  The role of folate receptor α in cancer development, progression and treatment: Cause, consequence or innocent bystander? , 2006, International journal of cancer.

[136]  Lawrence Tamarkin,et al.  Colloidal Gold: A Novel Nanoparticle Vector for Tumor Directed Drug Delivery , 2004, Drug delivery.

[137]  S. Dharap,et al.  Tumor-specific targeting of an anticancer drug delivery system by LHRH peptide. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[138]  Dakrong Pissuwan,et al.  Therapeutic possibilities of plasmonically heated gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Trends in biotechnology.

[139]  L. B. Hunt,et al.  The true story of Purple of Cassius , 1976 .

[140]  Remy Cromer,et al.  SERS nanoparticles: a new optical detection modality for cancer diagnosis. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[141]  Alaaldin M. Alkilany,et al.  Gold nanoparticles in biology: beyond toxicity to cellular imaging. , 2008, Accounts of chemical research.

[142]  Wilhelm R. Glomm,et al.  Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Applications in Bionanotechnology , 2005 .

[143]  Takuro Niidome,et al.  PEG-modified gold nanorods with a stealth character for in vivo applications. , 2006, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[144]  G. Adair,et al.  The osmotic pressure of hæmoglobin in the absence of salts , 1925 .

[145]  Prodrug Strategies in Anticancer Chemotherapy , 2008, ChemMedChem.

[146]  G. G. Stokes.  On the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of Pendulums , 2009 .

[147]  T. Niidome,et al.  Stable incorporation of gold nanorods into N-isopropylacrylamide hydrogels and their rapid shrinkage induced by near-infrared laser irradiation. , 2007, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[148]  Kevin Robbie,et al.  Nanomaterials and nanoparticles: Sources and toxicity , 2007, Biointerphases.

[149]  Bengt Fadeel,et al.  Toxicology of engineered nanomaterials: focus on biocompatibility, biodistribution and biodegradation. , 2011, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[150]  D. Beattie,et al.  Functionalized gold nanoparticles: synthesis, structure and colloid stability. , 2009, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[151]  E. Ebbini,et al.  Nanotherapeutics for enhancing thermal therapy of cancer , 2007, International journal of hyperthermia : the official journal of European Society for Hyperthermic Oncology, North American Hyperthermia Group.

[152]  P. Edwards,et al.  Gold in a metallic divided state--from Faraday to present-day nanoscience. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[153]  K. Faulds,et al.  LNA functionalized gold nanoparticles as probes for double stranded DNA through triplex formation. , 2008, Chemical communications.

[154]  Mathias Brust,et al.  Synthesis of thiol-derivatised gold nanoparticles in a two-phase liquid-liquid system , 1994 .

[155]  Valery V Tuchin,et al.  In vivo photoacoustic flow cytometry for monitoring of circulating single cancer cells and contrast agents. , 2006, Optics letters.

[156]  Kort Travis,et al.  Polarization microscopy with stellated gold nanoparticles for robust, in-situ monitoring of biomolecules , 2008 .

[157]  Naomi J. Halas,et al.  Surface enhanced Raman scattering in the near infrared using metal nanoshell substrates , 1999 .

[158]  Richard M Crooks,et al.  Synthesis, characterization, and applications of dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles. , 2005, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[159]  F. Collins.  An Introduction to Theoretical and Applied Colloid Chemistry: “The World of Neglected Dimensions” , 1923, Nature.

[160]  Timothy J Shaw,et al.  Cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of gold nanorods: molecular origin of cytotoxicity and surface effects. , 2009, Small.

[161]  Omid C. Farokhzad,et al.  Nanoparticle-Aptamer Bioconjugates , 2004, Cancer Research.

[162]  J. Mackey,et al.  Gemcitabine transport in xenopus oocytes expressing recombinant plasma membrane mammalian nucleoside transporters. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[163]  Mathias Brust,et al.  Uptake and intracellular fate of surface-modified gold nanoparticles. , 2008, ACS nano.

[164]  Charles R. Martin,et al.  Nanomaterials: A Membrane-Based Synthetic Approach , 1994, Science.

[165]  J. Bischof,et al.  TNF-alpha-based accentuation in cryoinjury--dose, delivery, and response. , 2007, Molecular cancer therapeutics.

[166]  C. R. Chris Wang,et al.  Gold Nanorods: Electrochemical Synthesis and Optical Properties. , 1997 .

[167]  Frank E. Osterloh,et al.  A Simple Large-Scale Synthesis of Nearly Monodisperse Gold and Silver Nanoparticles with Adjustable Sizes and with Exchangeable Surfactants , 2004 .

[168]  T. Imae,et al.  Functionalization of Gold Nanorods Toward Their Applications , 2009 .

[169]  E. Giralt,et al.  Homogeneous conjugation of peptides onto gold nanoparticles enhances macrophage response. , 2009, ACS nano.