First- and higher-order models of attitudes, normative influence, and perceived behavioural control in the theory of planned behaviour.

The present study examined the validity of an augmented version of Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behaviour (TPB), adopting second-order latent factors to explain relationships between the differentiated components of the theory constructs. This model was tested on data from two independent samples, for exercise and dieting behaviours, respectively. The affective and instrumental attitude, injunctive and descriptive norms, and perceived controllability and self-efficacy constructs all exhibited discriminant validity in the first instance. First- and second-order confirmatory factor analyses exhibited satisfactory fit with the observed data from both samples. There were no substantial differences in the fit indices across the first- and second-order models, and the second-order models exhibited the most optimal parsimony-corrected fit indices. The higher-order models could therefore not be rejected on the grounds of inferior fit or parsimony. First- and second-order structural equation models accounted for significant variance in intentions and behaviour. These results corroborate Ajzen's (2002a) and Bagozzi, Lee, and van Loo's (2001) premise that recent augmentations of the TPB that differentiate the model components can be subsumed by global, higher-order factors while still making the distinction at the subordinate level.

[1]  Richard Shepherd,et al.  The dimensional structure of the perceived behavioral control construct , 1997 .

[2]  M. Conner,et al.  Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Review and Avenues for Further Research , 1998 .

[3]  P. Bentler,et al.  Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives , 1999 .

[4]  J. S. Long,et al.  Testing Structural Equation Models , 1993 .

[5]  J. S. Long,et al.  Testing Structural Equation Models , 1993 .

[6]  Paul Norman,et al.  The Theory of Planned Behavior and Breast Self-Examination: Distinguishing Between Perceived Control and Self-Efficacy , 2004 .

[7]  B. A. Matthews,et al.  When Is Believing “Seeing”? Hostile Attribution Bias as a Function of Self‐Reported Aggression1 , 2002 .

[8]  S. Chaiken,et al.  Attitude structure and function. , 1998 .

[9]  M. Hogg,et al.  The theory of planned behaviour: self-identity, social identity and group norms. , 1999, The British journal of social psychology.

[10]  Edward E. Rigdon,et al.  Using the friedman method of ranks for model comparison in structural equation modeling , 1999 .

[11]  B. Thompson,et al.  EFFECTS OF SAMPLE SIZE, ESTIMATION METHODS, AND MODEL SPECIFICATION ON STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING FIT INDEXES , 1999 .

[12]  P. Sheeran,et al.  Evidence that intentions based on attitudes better predict behaviour than intentions based on subjective norms. , 1999 .

[13]  H. Akaike.  Factor analysis and AIC , 1987 .

[14]  S. Biddle,et al.  The influence of self-efficacy and past behaviour on the physical activity intentions of young people , 2001, Journal of sports sciences.

[15]  L. Tucker,et al.  A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis , 1973 .

[16]  Pål Kraft,et al.  Expanding the Theory of Planned Behaviour: The Role of Social Norms and Group Identification , 2002, Journal of health psychology.

[17]  P. Bentler,et al.  Attitudes "cause" behaviors: A structural equation analysis. , 1981 .

[18]  Gregory R. Hancock,et al.  Improving the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation for Nonnormal Conditions in Structural Equation Modeling , 2000 .

[19]  Carl A. Kallgren,et al.  A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. , 1990 .

[20]  S. Biddle,et al.  Physical Self-Perceptions in Adolescence , 2003 .

[21]  D. Trafimow,et al.  Evidence that perceived behavioural control is a multidimensional construct: perceived control and perceived difficulty. , 2002, The British journal of social psychology.

[22]  M. Fishbein,et al.  Evaluating the Impact of a National AIDS Prevention Radio Campaign in St. Vincent and the Grenadines1 , 1995 .

[23]  I. Ajzen.  The theory of planned behavior , 1991 .

[24]  M. Hogg,et al.  Safer sex behavior: The role of attitudes, norms and control factors , 1994 .

[25]  R. Lennox,et al.  Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective. , 1991 .

[26]  J. Grube,et al.  Attitudes and normative beliefs as predictors of smoking intentions and behaviours: a test of three models. , 1986, The British journal of social psychology.

[27]  I. Ajzen.  Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. , 2002 .

[28]  H. Tajfel.  Social stereotypes and social groups. , 2001 .

[29]  R. Cialdini.  CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Crafting Normative Messages to Protect the Environment , 2022 .

[30]  M. Fishbein,et al.  Theories of reasoned action and planned behavior as models of condom use: a meta-analysis. , 2001, Psychological bulletin.

[31]  Marco Perugini,et al.  Predicting and understanding behavioral volitions: the interplay between goals and behaviors , 2000 .

[32]  D. Terry,et al.  The theory of planned behaviour: the effects of perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy. , 1995, The British journal of social psychology.

[33]  Blair H. Sheppard,et al.  The Theory of Reasoned Action: A Meta-Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research , 1988 .

[34]  H. Kehr,et al.  Implicit/Explicit Motive Discrepancies and Volitional Depletion among Managers , 2004, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[35]  Martin S. Hagger,et al.  The influence of autonomous and controlling motives on physical activity intentions within the Theory of Planned Behaviour. , 2002, British journal of health psychology.

[36]  M. Conner,et al.  Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a meta-analytic review. , 2001, The British journal of social psychology.

[37]  David Trafimow,et al.  Some Tests of the Distinction between Cognitive and Affective Beliefs , 1998 .

[38]  A. Manstead,et al.  Distinguishing between perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy in the domain of academic achievement intentions and behaviors , 1998 .

[39]  Roger E. Millsap,et al.  Doing the Four-Step Right , 2000 .

[40]  P. Callero,et al.  Role identity and reasoned action in the prediction of repeated behavior , 1988 .

[41]  K. Courneya,et al.  Self-efficacy, Controllability and Intention in the Theory of Planned Behavior: Measurement Redundancy or Causal Independence? , 2003 .

[42]  S. Mulaik,et al.  EVALUATION OF GOODNESS-OF-FIT INDICES FOR STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELS , 1989 .

[43]  Richard P. Bagozzi,et al.  A comparison of leading theories for the prediction of goal‐directed behaviours , 1995 .

[44]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior , 1980 .

[45]  Mark Conner,et al.  Application of the theory of planned behaviour to two dietary behaviours: Roles of perceived control and self-efficacy , 2000 .

[46]  P. Sheeran,et al.  Do intentions predict condom use? Meta-analysis and examination of six moderator variables. , 1998, The British journal of social psychology.

[47]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Prediction of leisure participation from behavioral, normative, and control beliefs: An application of the theory of planned behavior , 1991 .

[48]  M. Conner,et al.  Interaction effects in the theory of planned behaviour: studying cannabis use. , 1999, The British journal of social psychology.

[49]  Peter M. Bentler,et al.  EQS : structural equations program manual , 1989 .

[50]  P. Sheeran,et al.  Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis , 2003 .

[51]  Martin S. Hagger,et al.  Antecedents of children's physical activity intentions and behaviour: Predictive validity and longitudinal effects , 2001 .

[52]  H W Marsh,et al.  Positive and negative global self-esteem: a substantively meaningful distinction or artifactors? , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[53]  Stuart J. H. Biddle,et al.  Functional significance of psychological variables that are included in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a Self-Determination Theory approach to the study of attitudes, subjective norms, perceptions of control and intentions , 1998 .

[54]  I. Ajzen.  Residual Effects of Past on Later Behavior: Habituation and Reasoned Action Perspectives , 2002 .

[55]  M. Hogg,et al.  Group Norms and the Attitude-Behavior Relationship: A Role for Group Identification , 1996 .

[56]  M. Fishbein,et al.  Attitudinal and Normative Factors as Determinants of Gay Men's Intentions to Perform AIDS-Related Sexual Behaviors: A Multisite Analysis1 , 1992 .

[57]  P. Sheeran,et al.  Augmenting the Theory of Planned Behavior: Roles for Anticipated Regret and Descriptive Norms , 1999 .

[58]  S. Chaiken,et al.  The psychology of attitudes. , 1993 .

[59]  Ryan E Rhodes,et al.  Investigating multiple components of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control: an examination of the theory of planned behaviour in the exercise domain. , 2003, The British journal of social psychology.

[60]  Marie Johnston,et al.  Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in Behaviour Change Interventions: A Systematic Review , 2002 .

[61]  H. Marsh,et al.  Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First- and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. , 1985 .

[62]  S. Biddle,et al.  A Meta-Analytic Review of the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior in Physical Activity: Predictive Validity and the Contribution of Additional Variables , 2002 .

[63]  Kenneth A. Bollen,et al.  Structural Equations with Latent Variables , 1989 .

[64]  P. Bentler,et al.  Comparative fit indexes in structural models. , 1990, Psychological bulletin.

[65]  Mark Conner,et al.  The theory of planned behaviour: Assessment of predictive validity and 'perceived control , 1999 .

[66]  Verlin B. Hinsz,et al.  The Value of the Theory of Planned Behavior, Perceived Control, and Self-Efficacy Expectations for Predicting Health-Protective Behaviors , 1993 .

[67]  R. Bagozzi,et al.  Decisions to donate bone marrow: The role of attitudes and subjective norms across cultures , 2001 .

[68]  Mark Conner,et al.  Distinguishing Perceptions of Control From Self‐Efficacy: Predicting Consumption of a Low‐Fat Diet Using the Theory of Planned Behavior , 1999 .

[69]  M. Conner,et al.  Understanding choice of milk and bread for breakfast among Swedish children aged 11–15 years: an application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour , 2000, Appetite.

[70]  E. Deci,et al.  The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[71]  Marco Perugini,et al.  The distinction between desires and intentions , 2004 .

[72]  K. A. Dutton,et al.  Global Self-Esteem and Specific Self-Views as Determinants of People's Reactions to Success and Failure , 1997 .

[73]  P. Sheeran,et al.  Social Influences and the Theory of Planned Behaviour: Evidence for a Direct Relationship Between Prototypes and Young People's Exercise Behaviour , 2003 .

[74]  Stephen Sutton,et al.  The past predicts the future: Interpreting behaviour–behaviour relationships in social psychological models of health behaviour. , 1994 .