The avian respiratory system: a unique model for studies of respiratory toxicosis and for monitoring air quality.

There are many distinct differences (morphologic, physiologic, and mechanical) between the bird's lung-air-sac respiratory system and the mammalian bronchoalveolar lung. In this paper, we review the physiology of the avian respiratory system with attention to those mechanisms that may lead to significantly different results, relative to those in mammals, following exposure to toxic gases and airborne particulates. We suggest that these differences can be productively exploited to further our understanding of the basic mechanisms of inhalant toxicology (gases and particulates). The large mass-specific gas uptake by the avian respiratory system, at rest and especially during exercise, could be exploited as a sensitive monitor of air quality. Birds have much to offer in our understanding of respiratory toxicology, but that expectation can only be realized by investigating, in a wide variety of avian taxa, the pathophysiologic interactions of a broad range of inhaled toxicants on the bird's unique respiratory system. Imagesp188-aFigure 1.Figure 2.Figure 3.Figure 4.Figure 5. AFigure 5. BFigure 5. CFigure 6.Figure 7.Figure 8.

[1]  Prof. Dr. Dr. Hans-Rainer Duncker.  The Lung Air Sac System of Birds , 1971, Ergebnisse der Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte / Advances in Anatomy, Embryology and Cell Biology / Revues d’anatomie et de morphologie expérimentale.

[2]  F. Powell,et al.  Morphometrics of rapidly frozen goose lungs. , 1983, Respiration physiology.

[3]  P. J. Bunyan,et al.  Toxic mechanisms in wildlife. , 1982, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[4]  K. Donald.  Respiration , 1962 .

[5]  D. Roland,et al.  Influence of dietary calcium deficiency on yolk and serum calcium, yolk and organ weights and other selected production criteria of the pullet. , 1973, Poultry science.

[6]  J. Petitte,et al.  Avian macrophages: contribution to cellular microenvironment and changes in effector functions following activation. , 1993, Poultry science.

[7]  G. M. Hughes.  Comparative Physiology of Vertebrate Respiration , 1963 .

[8]  J. Butler,et al.  Gas exchange across avian eggshells oscillates in phase with heartbeat. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[9]  J J Fredberg,et al.  Bird lung models show that convective inertia effects inspiratory aerodynamic valving. , 1988, Respiration physiology.

[10]  J J Fredberg,et al.  Inspiratory valving in avian bronchi: aerodynamic considerations. , 1988, Respiration physiology.

[11]  W. Calder,et al.  TRACHEAL DEAD SPACE IN THE RESPIRATION OF BIRDS , 1971, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[12]  Knut Schmidt-Nielsen,et al.  The Movement of Gas in the Respiratory System of the Duck , 1972 .

[13]  J. Piiper,et al.  Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity of the respiratory system in the domestic fowl. , 1969, Respiration physiology.

[14]  J. Mcgrath,et al.  Effects of hypothermia on heart and respiratory responses of chicks to carbon monoxide. , 1973, Journal of applied physiology.

[15]  R. C. Lasiewski.  Chapter 5 – RESPIRATORY FUNCTION IN BIRDS , 1972 .

[16]  R. Dudley,et al.  Limits to vertebrate locomotor energetics suggested by hummingbirds hovering in heliox , 1995, Nature.

[17]  Robert W. Furness,et al.  Birds as monitors of environmental change , 1993 .

[18]  K Schmidt-Nielsen,et al.  Bird respiration: flow patterns in the duck lung. , 1971, The Journal of experimental biology.

[19]  M. Gleeson,et al.  Effect of bilateral vagotomy on arterial acid-base stability during panting in the pigeon. , 1986, Respiration physiology.

[20]  G. A. Mensah,et al.  Deposition and clearance of inhaled aerosol in the respiratory tract of chickens. , 1982, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[21]  J. Mcgrath,et al.  Effect of iodoacetate on the carbon monoxide tolerance of the chick. , 1971, Respiration physiology.

[22]  W. D. Halliburton,et al.  Handbook of Physiology , 1870, Edinburgh Medical Journal.

[23]  G. Visser,et al.  Gas conductance and metabolism of shorebird eggs: variation within and between species. , 1995, Respiration physiology.

[24]  L. Arp,et al.  A morphologic study of bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue in turkeys. , 1990, The American journal of anatomy.

[25]  D. Leith.  Comparative mammalian respiratory mechanics. , 1976, The Physiologist.

[26]  S. Roth,et al.  Toxicology of hydrogen sulfide. , 1992, Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology.

[27]  P. Dejours,et al.  Pathway of respired gas in the air sacs-lung apparatus of fowl and ducks. , 1971, Respiration physiology.

[28]  W. R. Stahl,et al.  Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. , 1967, Journal of applied physiology.

[29]  E. L. Besch,et al.  Airborne-particle deposition in the respiratory tract of chickens. , 1974, Poultry science.

[30]  F. Powell,et al.  Single breath CO2 measurements of deadspace in ducks. , 1986, Respiration physiology.

[31]  Y. Dror,et al.  Effect of ozone exposure on growth, nutritional encephalopathy, and fatty acid composition of cerebellum and lungs in the young chick. , 1981, Poultry Science.

[32]  V. Tucker.  Respiration during flight in birds. , 1972, Respiration physiology.

[33]  J. Heyder,et al.  Deposition of particles in the human respiratory tract in the size range 0.005–15 μm , 1986 .

[34]  J. Widdicombe,et al.  Responses of geese to inhalation of irritant gases and injections of phenyl diguanide. , 1974, Respiration physiology.

[35]  J Aschoff,et al.  Rhythmic variations in energy metabolism. , 1970, Federation proceedings.

[36]  A. King.  Structural and Functional Aspects of the Avian Lungs and Air Sacs , 1966 .

[37]  K. Benirschke,et al.  Comparative pathology of silicate pneumoconiosis. , 1979, The American journal of pathology.

[38]  Wells Re,et al.  Acute toxicosis of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) caused by pyrolysis products from heated polytetrafluoroethylene: clinical study. , 1982 .

[39]  M. Stenbeck,et al.  Respiratory system. , 1995, Acta oncologica.

[40]  M. Fedde,et al.  Cardiopulmonary responses to carbon monoxide breathing in the chicken. , 1974, Respiration physiology.

[41]  J Piiper,et al.  Direct measurement of the aathway of respired gas in duck lungs. , 1971, Respiration physiology.

[42]  W. Calder,et al.  A preliminary allometric analysis of respiratory variables in resting birds. , 1971, Respiration physiology.

[43]  K. L. Gabriel.  VETERINARY TOXICOLOGY , 1964, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[44]  T. Madelin,et al.  Air hygiene in a broiler house: comparison of deep litter with raised netting floors. , 1989, British poultry science.

[45]  R. K. Schreiber,et al.  Animals as indicators of ecosystem responses to air emissions , 1984 .

[46]  M. Fedde,et al.  Hydrogen sulfide: effects on avian respiratory control and intrapulmonary CO2 receptors. , 1978, Respiration physiology.

[47]  H. Rahn,et al.  Factors Modifying Rate of Water Loss from Birds' Eggs during Incubation , 1990, Physiological Zoology.

[48]  D. R. Clandinin,et al.  Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Chicks , 1963 .

[49]  M. Ottinger.  Birds , 1991, Experimental Gerontology.

[50]  J. Brain,et al.  Deposition and phagocytosis of inhaled particles in the gas exchange region of the duck, Anas platyrhynchos. , 1987, Respiration physiology.

[51]  C. Walker.  Pesticides and birds — mechanisms of selective toxicity , 1983 .

[52]  F. Jenkins,et al.  An aerodynamic valve in the avian primary bronchus. , 1992, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[53]  J. Piiper,et al.  Concepts and basic quantities in gas exchange physiology. , 1971, Respiration physiology.

[54]  J. C. Lay,et al.  Induction, collection, and partial characterization of induced respiratory macrophages of the turkey. , 1986, Avian diseases.

[55]  M. Boyd,et al.  In vivo studies on the target tissue metabolism, covalent binding, glutathione depletion, and toxicity of 4-ipomeanol in birds, species deficient in pulmonary enzymes for metabolic activation. , 1982, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[56]  C M Wathes,et al.  Air hygiene in a pullet house: spatial homogeneity of aerial pollutants. , 1989, British poultry science.

[57]  R. R. Wolfe,et al.  Influence of dust and ammonia on the development of air sac lesions in turkeys. , 1968, American journal of veterinary research.

[58]  D. Hoffman,et al.  Avian Models for Toxicity Testing , 1984 .

[59]  M. Boyd,et al.  Metabolic activation of 4-ipomeanol by avian tissue microsomes. , 1982, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[60]  J Piiper,et al.  Cross-current gas exchange in avian lungs: effects of reversed parabronchial air flow in ducks. , 1972, Respiration physiology.

[61]  K. Schmidt-Nielsen,et al.  TEMPERATURE REGULATION AND RESPIRATION IN THE OSTRICH , 1969 .

[62]  David P. Anderson,et al.  The Adverse Effects of Ammonia on Chickens Including Resistance to Infection with Newcastle Disease Virus , 1964 .

[63]  P. Scheid.  Mechanisms of gas exchange in bird lungs. , 1979, Reviews of physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology.

[64]  J L Lehr,et al.  Inspiratory aerodynamic valving in goose lungs depends on gas density and velocity. , 1987, Respiration physiology.

[65]  B. Smith,et al.  Pneumoconiosis in the Captive New Zealand Kiwi , 1973, Veterinary pathology.

[66]  P Scheid,et al.  Volume and ventilation of air sacs in ducks studied by inert gas wash-out. , 1974, Respiration physiology.

[67]  R. Hanson,et al.  Influence of poultry house dust, ammonia, and carbon dioxide on the resistance of chickens to Newcastle disease virus. , 1966, Avian diseases.

[68]  D. Hoffman.  Handbook of Ecotoxicology , 1995 .

[69]  Brown,et al.  The avian lung: is there an aerodynamic expiratory valve? , 1995, The Journal of experimental biology.

[70]  R. C. Lasiewski,et al.  A Re-Examination of the Relation between Standard Metabolic Rate and Body Weight in Birds , 1967 .

[71]  H. Rahn,et al.  Respiratory gas exchange by the avian embryo. , 1970, Respiration physiology.

[72]  M. Fedde,et al.  Cardiopulmonary responses to inhaled sulfur dioxide in the chicken. , 1979, Poultry Science.

[73]  R. Boche,et al.  The toxicity of ozone for young chicks. , 1958, A.M.A. archives of industrial health.

[74]  R. B. Reeves,et al.  The Avian Egg: Water Vapor Conductance, Shell Thickness, and Functional Pore Area , 1974 .