Boys' externalizing problems at elementary school age: Pathways from early behavior problems, maternal control, and family stress

Abstract Hard-to-manage preschool boys and comparison boys were studied at age 4 years and followed at ages 6 and 9 years. Externalizing problems at ages 4 and 9 were associated with concurrent family stress, but this relationship was partially mediated by negative maternal control. Cross-lagged regressions indicated that despite the high stability in children's problem ratings, observed negative maternal control at age 4 and self-reported negative discipline at age 9 predicted externalizing problems at age 9 years, controlling for earlier levels of symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that problems were more likely to persist in the context of chronic family stress, defined as negative life events, marital dissatisfaction, and maternal depressive symptoms. When problem boys who met diagnostic criteria for Oppositional Disorder and/or Attention Deficit Disorder were compared with boys who were improved by age 9 years, family stress and earlier symptom levels, as well as maternal control differentiated between them. Teacher ratings suggested that these boys were on a clear pathway to persistent problems by age 6 years. A small sample of comparison boys with emerging problems also were living in more dysfunctional families and their mothers reported using more negative discipline at age 9 years.

[1]  G. Spanier.  Measuring Dyadic Adjustment: new scales for assessing the quality of marriage and similar dyads , 1976 .

[2]  L. Ewing,et al.  Hard-to-manage preschool boys: Family context and the stability of externalizing behavior , 1991, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[3]  S. Campbell,et al.  Behavior problems in preschool children: a review of recent research. , 1995, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[4]  M. Rutter,et al.  Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology (Vol.2): Internalizing and externalizing expressions of dysfunction , 1991 .

[5]  F. Gardner.  Positive interaction between mothers and conduct-problem children: Is there training for harmony as well as fighting? , 1987, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[6]  M. Fine,et al.  Family acceptance and family control as predictors of adjustment in young adolescents: linear, curvilinear, or interactive effects? , 1994, Child development.

[7]  H. Locke,et al.  SHORT MARITAL ADJUSTMENT AND PREDICTION TESTS: THEIR RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY , 1959 .

[8]  G. Margolin,et al.  Children's perceptions of parental behaviors , 1983, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[9]  E. Barnes.  Growth of social understanding. , 1914 .

[10]  Grazyna Kochanska,et al.  A developmental interpretation of Young children's noncompliance , 1987 .

[11]  E. Maccoby,et al.  Socialization In The Context Of The Family: Parent-Child Interaction , 1983 .

[12]  L. Ewing,et al.  Noncompliant behavior, overactivity, and family stress as predictors of negative maternal control with preschool children , 1991, Development and Psychopathology.

[13]  J. Snyder.  Discipline as a mediator of the impact of maternal stress and mood on child conduct problems , 1991, Development and Psychopathology.

[14]  James H. Johnson,et al.  Assessing the impact of life changes: development of the Life Experiences Survey. , 1978, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[15]  E. Hetherington.  Coping with Marital Transitions: A Family Systems Perspective , 1992 .

[16]  T. Achenbach.  Manual for the child behavior checklist/4-18 and 1991 profile , 1991 .

[17]  Kenneth H. Rubin,et al.  Preschool teachers' ratings of behavioral problems: Observational, sociometric, and social-cognitive correlates , 1983, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[18]  J. Bates,et al.  Mother-child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament. , 1985, Child development.

[19]  Cindy Litman,et al.  Autonomy as competence in 2-year-olds : maternal correlates of child defiance, compliance, and self-assertion , 1990 .

[20]  G. S. Pettit,et al.  Socialization mediators of the relation between socioeconomic status and child conduct problems. , 1994, Child development.

[21]  E. M. Hetherington,et al.  Socialization, personality, and social development , 1983 .

[22]  C. Shantz.  Conflicts between children. , 1987 .

[23]  William Sack,et al.  Behavior Problems in Preschool Children: Clinical and Developmental Issues , 1992 .

[24]  Patrick T. Davies,et al.  Marital conflict and child adjustment: an emotional security hypothesis. , 1994, Psychological bulletin.

[25]  Thomas J. Dishion,et al.  Family, School, and Behavioral Antecedents to Early Adolescent Involvement with Antisocial Peers. , 1991 .

[26]  W. Pelham,et al.  Peer relationships in hyperactive children: Description and treatment. , 1982 .

[27]  T. Scruggs.  Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities , 1992 .

[28]  G R Patterson,et al.  A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. , 1989, The American psychologist.

[29]  S. Campbell.  Hard-to-manage preschool boys: Externalizing behavior, social competence, and family context at two-year followup , 1994, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[30]  D. Cicchetti,et al.  Bowlby’s Dream Comes Full Circle , 1995 .

[31]  S. Campbell.  Longitudinal studies of active and aggressive preschoolers: Individual differences in early behavior and outcomes. , 1991 .

[32]  S. Feldman,et al.  Self-restraint as a mediator of family influences on boys' delinquent behavior: a longitudinal study. , 1994, Child development.

[33]  S. Hinshaw.  On the distinction between attentional deficits/hyperactivity and conduct problems/aggression in child psychopathology. , 1987, Psychological bulletin.

[34]  P. Cowan,et al.  Externalizing in preschoolers and early adolescents : a cross-study replication of a family model , 1993 .

[35]  S. Calkins.  Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. , 1994, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.

[36]  S. Hinshaw,et al.  Peer relationships in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid aggression , 1995, Development and Psychopathology.

[37]  L. Behar,et al.  The Preschool Behavior Questionnaire , 1977, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[38]  L. Ewing,et al.  Hard-to-manage preschool boys: symptomatic behavior across contexts and time. , 1994, Child development.

[39]  C. Zahn-Waxler,et al.  Child rearing and children's prosocial initiations toward victims of distress. , 1979, Child development.

[40]  L. Ewing,et al.  A multidimensional assessment of parent-identified behavior problem toddlers , 1982, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[41]  D. A. Kenny,et al.  The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[42]  J. Dumas,et al.  Maternal reports of child behavior problems and personal distress as predictors of dysfunctional parenting , 1995, Development and Psychopathology.

[43]  D. Cicchetti,et al.  Bowlby's dream comes full circle: the application of attachment theory to risk and psychopathology , 1995 .

[44]  R. J. Thompson,et al.  Internal consistency of DSM-III diagnoses using the symptom scales of the Child Assessment Schedule. , 1990, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[45]  A. B. Hollingshead,et al.  Four factor index of social status , 1975 .

[46]  T. Moffitt.  Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: boys' developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. , 1990, Child development.

[47]  M. Greenberg,et al.  Attachment security in preschoolers with and without externalizing behavior problems: A replication , 1991, Development and Psychopathology.

[48]  J. Campos,et al.  Emergent Themes in the Study of Emotional Development and Emotion Regulation. , 1989 .

[49]  Benjamin B. Lahey,et al.  Advances in Clinical Child Psychology , 1980, Advances in Clinical Child Psychology.

[50]  L. Ewing,et al.  Parent-referred problem three-year-olds: follow-up at school entry. , 1986, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[51]  S. Campbell.  Behavior problems in preschool children: Developmental and family issues. , 1997 .

[52]  J. Reid.  Prevention of conduct disorder before and after school entry: Relating interventions to developmental findings , 1993, Development and Psychopathology.

[53]  D. Shaw,et al.  Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior , 1993, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[54]  E. Hetherington.  Coping with family transitions: winners, losers, and survivors. , 1989, Child development.

[55]  D. Cicchetti.  Developmental Psychopathology: Reactions, Reflections, Projections , 1993 .

[56]  L. Frank.  The Society for Research in Child Development , 1935 .

[57]  M. Greenberg,et al.  The role of attachment in the early development of disruptive behavior problems , 1993, Development and Psychopathology.

[58]  G. S. Pettit,et al.  Spanking in the home and children's subsequent aggression toward kindergarten peers , 1994, Development and Psychopathology.

[59]  L. Sroufe.  Considering normal and abnormal together: The essence of developmental psychopathology , 1990, Development and Psychopathology.

[60]  M. Cox,et al.  Long-term effects of divorce and remarriage on the adjustment of children. , 1985, Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry.