Toward a Practice Perspective of Entrepreneurship

We argue that entrepreneurship research would benefit from a practice perspective, and drawing from Bourdieu's work, we envision entrepreneurship as a profoundly socially embedded process connected to entrepreneurs' positions in structures of power relations. In taking an initial step in the development of a practice perspective of entrepreneurship, we focus on one domain of entrepreneurial action, that is, the gaining of legitimacy by newcomers entering a field, which we conceive as the enactment of entrepreneurial habitus. We question the assumption that a newcomer entering a field automatically is deemed an entrepreneur and instead argue that he or she must be 'legitimized' as an entrepreneur by enacting taken-for-granted yet conflicting expectations about 'fitting in' with field rules and 'standing out' as a rule breaker. We discuss how newcomers' cultural and symbolic capital shape their ability to attain legitimacy and, in turn, how the interplay between newcomers' legitimacy and success influences the extent to which the structure of fields becomes reinforced or transformed. Vers une perspective pratique de l'entrepreneuriat Légitimité entrepreneuriale comme habitus Dirk De Clercq et Maxim Voronov Université Brock, Canada Nous soutenons que la recherche entrepreneuriale pourrait tirer parti d'une perspective pratique et, en nous basant sur un ouvrage de Bourdieu, nous concevons 1'entrepreneuriat comme un processus social profondément ancré, associé aux postes qu'occupent les entrepreneurs dans les structures relationnelles avec le pouvoir. En franchissant le premier pas dans le développement d'une perspective pratique de l'entrepreneuriat, nous ciblons un domaine de l'action entrepreneuriale, à savoir l'acquisition de la légitimité par les nouveaux arrivants dans un domaine donné, que nous considérons comme l'adoption de l'habitus entrepreneurial. Nous remettons en question la supposition qu'un nouveau venu dans un domaine donné est automatiquement considéré être un entrepreneur et nous soutenons, par contre, qu'il ou qu'elle doit "légitimer" son statut d'entrepreneur en mettant en œuvre les attentes considérées comme admises, mais non pas moins contradictoires, à savoir "s'adapter" aux règles du jeu et à " se singulariser" comme transgresseur des règles. Nous analysons comment le capital culturel et symbolique des nouveaux arrivants façonne leur aptitude à atteindre la légitimité et, à la fois, comment et à quel point l'interaction entre la légitimité et le succès de ces nouveaux arrivants peut-elle influencer le renforcement et la transformation de la structure des domaines. Hacia una perspectiva practica del emprendedurismo Legitimidad empresarial como habito Dirk De Clercq y Maxim Voronov Universidad Brock, Canada Nosotros sostenemos que la investigatión empresarial sacaría provecho de una perspectiva práctica y, basándonos en un trabajo de Bourdieu, concebimos el emprendedurismo como un proceso social muy arraigado conectado con los puestos que ocupan los emprendedores en las estructuras relacionadas con el poder. Al tomar el primer paso en el desarrollo de una perspectiva práctica del emprendedurismo nos centramos en un dominio de la acción empresarial, es decir, la obtención de legitimidad por los nuevos en un campo, lo que consideramos como la escenificación del hábito empresarial. Ponemos en tela de juicio la suposición de que el novato en un campo sea considerado automáticamente un emprendedor y sostenemos, en cambio, que debiera 'legitimar' su identidad de emprendedor escenificando las expectativas contradictorias que se dan por sentadas de 'amoldarse' a observar las reglas del juego y 'sobresalir' como transgresor. Analizamos cómo el capital simbólico y cultural de los novatos forma su capacidad de obtener la legitimidad y, a su vez, cómo la interacción entre la legitimidad y el éxito de los novatos influye en la medida en que la estructura de los campos se refuerza o transforma. Für eine Praxisperspektive im Unternehmertum Unternehmerische Legitimität als Habitus Dirk De Clercq und Maxim Voronov Brock Universität, Kanada Wir argumentieren, dass die Unternehmertumsforschung von einer Praxisperspektive profitieren würde, und Bourdieus Arbeit zufolge stellen wir uns das Unternehmertum als einen zutiefst sozial eingebetteten Prozess vor, der mit den Positionen der Unternehmer innerhalb der Strukturen der Machtbeziehungen verbunden ist. Um einen ersten Schritt in der Entwicklung einer Praxisperspektive im Unternehmertum zu entwickeln, konzentrieren wir uns auf einen Bereich des unternehmerischen Handelns, und zwar der Legitimitätsgewinnung von Neuankömmlingen in einer Branche, was wir als Ausübung des unternehmerischen Habitus ansehen. Wir hinterfragen die Annahme, dass ein Neuankömmling in einer Branche automatisch als ein Unternehmer angesehen wird und argumentieren stattdessen, dass er oder sie erst als Unternehmer ,,legitimiert" werden muss, indem er/sie selbstverständliche, jedoch widersprüchliche Erwartungen über das ,,sich Anpassen" an die Regeln der Branche und das ,,Herausstechen" als Regelbrecher erfüllt. Wir diskutieren, wie das kulturelle und symbolische Kapital der Neuankömmlinge ihre Fähigkeit, diese Legitimierung zu erlangen, formt, und in welchem Umfang das Zusammenspiel zwischen Legitimität und Erfolg der Neuankömmlinge die Strukturen der Branche verstärkt oder transformiert.

[1]  Kelly G. Shaver,et al.  Person, Process, Choice: The Psychology of New Venture Creation , 1992 .

[2]  Graham Beaver Small firms: owners and entrepreneurs , 2003 .

[3]  Howard E. Aldrich,et al.  Fools Rush in? The Institutional Context of Industry Creation , 1994 .

[4]  M. Lounsbury,et al.  Vive La Resistance: Competing Logics and the Consolidation of U.S. Community Banking , 2006 .

[5]  Charles J. Fombrun,et al.  Constructing competitive advantage: The role of firm-constituent interactions , 1999 .

[6]  C. Brush,et al.  Businesses without glamour? an analysis of resources on performance by size and age in small service and retail firms , 1999 .

[7]  Karim Messeghem,et al.  Strategic Entrepreneurship and Managerial Activities in SMEs , 2003 .

[8]  W. Powell,et al.  The iron cage revisited institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields , 1983 .

[9]  Deborah Dougherty,et al.  Organizing Practices in Services: Capturing Practice-Based Knowledge for Innovation , 2004 .

[10]  Stephen Downing,et al.  The Social Construction of Entrepreneurship: Narrative and Dramatic Processes in the Coproduction of Organizations and Identities , 2005 .

[11]  Mark C. Suchman Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches , 1995 .

[12]  K. K. Cetina,et al.  The Practice Turn in Contemporary Theory , 2001 .

[13]  P. Bourdieu,et al.  实践与反思 : 反思社会学导引 = An invitation to reflexive sociology , 1994 .

[14]  Hayagreeva Rao,et al.  Code Breaking: How Entrepreneurs Exploit Cultural Logics to Generate Institutional Change , 2006 .

[15]  Rita Gunther McGrath Falling Forward: Real Options Reasoning and Entrepreneurial Failure , 1999 .

[16]  P. Cooke,et al.  Social capital, firm embeddedness and regional development , 2005 .

[17]  W. Orlikowski Using Technology and Constituting Structures: A Practice Lens for Studying Technology in Organizations , 2000 .

[18]  David L. Deeds,et al.  Predictors of Capital Structure in Small Ventures , 1996 .

[19]  Gerald R. Salancik,et al.  Errata: Stability in Interorganizational Exchanges: Rulemaking Processes of the Chicago Board of Trade , 1982 .

[20]  Israel M. Kirzner Competition and Entrepreneurship , 1973 .

[21]  Loïc J. D. Wacquant,et al.  Carnal Connections: On Embodiment, Apprenticeship, and Membership , 2005 .

[22]  Loïc Wacquant On the Tracks of Symbolic Power: Prefatory Notes to Bourdieu's `State Nobility' , 1993 .

[23]  J. Schumpeter,et al.  The Theory of Economic Development , 2017 .

[24]  William B. Gartner,et al.  Words lead to deeds: Towards an organizational emergence vocabulary , 1993 .

[25]  E. Chell,et al.  The entrepreneurial personality : concepts, cases, and categories , 1991 .

[26]  P. Jarzabkowski Strategy as Practice: Recursiveness, Adaptation, and Practices-in-Use , 2004 .

[27]  Paula Jarzabkowski,et al.  Strategic Practices: An Activity Theory Perspective on Continuity and Change , 2003 .

[28]  Stewart Clegg,et al.  Radical Revisions: Power, Discipline and Organizations , 1989 .

[29]  O. Jones,et al.  Building social capital through action learning: an insight into the entrepreneur , 2004 .

[30]  Joel Podolny Networks as the Pipes and Prisms of the Market1 , 2001, American Journal of Sociology.

[31]  H. Rao,et al.  Institutional Change in Toque Ville: Nouvelle Cuisine as an Identity Movement in French Gastronomy1 , 2003, American Journal of Sociology.

[32]  P. Dick Resistance, Gender, and Bourdieu's Notion of Field , 2008 .

[33]  Alistair R. Anderson,et al.  News and Nuances of the Entrepreneurial Myth and Metaphor: Linguistic Games in Entrepreneurial Sense–Making and Sense–Giving , 2005 .

[34]  M. Archer,et al.  Making Our Way Through the World: Human Reflexivity and Social Mobility. By Margaret S. Archer , 2009 .

[35]  B. Bernstein Theoretical Studies Towards a Sociology of Language , 1972 .

[36]  Sheila C. Hunt,et al.  Organisation and Control , 1914, The Hospital.

[37]  Michael D. Reilly,et al.  Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions , 2000 .

[38]  D. Hjorth,et al.  Entrepreneurship Beyond (a New) Economy: Creative Swarms and Pathological Zones , 2003 .

[39]  L. Berry,et al.  Creating new markets through service innovation , 2006 .

[40]  N. Mouzelis Sociological Theory: What went Wrong?: Diagnosis and Remedies , 1995 .

[41]  Carolyn Y. Woo,et al.  Survival of the Fittest? Entrepreneurial Human Capital and the Persistence of Underperforming Firms , 1997 .

[42]  Martin L. Martens,et al.  DO THE STORIES THEY TELL GET THEM THE MONEY THEY NEED? THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURIAL NARRATIVES IN RESOURCE ACQUISITION , 2007 .

[43]  Peter Armstrong Critique of Entrepreneurship: People and Policy , 2005 .

[44]  Andreas Reckwitz Toward a Theory of Social Practices , 2002 .

[45]  Renaud Redien-Collot,et al.  The Social Representation of Entrepreneurs in the French Press , 2008 .

[46]  Robert L. Heneman,et al.  Human Resource Management Practices in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: Unanswered Questions and Future Research Perspectives , 2000 .

[47]  S. Shane,et al.  The Promise of Entrepreneurship as a Field of Research , 2000 .

[48]  T. Baker,et al.  Creating Something from Nothing: Resource Construction through Entrepreneurial Bricolage , 2005 .

[49]  Robert Chia,et al.  On Organizational Becoming: Rethinking Organizational Change , 2002, Organ. Sci..

[50]  B. Honig,et al.  Institutional forces and the written business plan , 2004 .

[51]  Saku Mantere Strategic practices as enablers and disablers of championing activity , 2005 .

[52]  R. Greenwood,et al.  Institutional Entrepreneurship in Mature Fields: The Big Five Accounting Firms , 2006 .

[53]  Richard Whittington,et al.  Strategy as Practice , 1996 .

[54]  J. Dillard,et al.  Entrepreneurship as the nexus of individual and opportunity: A structuration view , 2006 .

[55]  R. Harker,et al.  The Basic Theoretical Position , 1990 .

[56]  W. Nord,et al.  Book Review Essay: Understanding Bourdieu'S Contribution To Organization And Management Studies , 2005 .

[57]  M. Archer Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory , 1996 .

[58]  E. A. Locke,et al.  The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[59]  Philip E. Auerswald Entrepreneurship in the Theory of the Firm , 2006 .

[60]  Margaret S. Archer Making our Way through the World: Part III , 2007 .

[61]  Ellen S. O’Connor,et al.  Storied Business: Typology, Intertextuality, and Traffic in Entrepreneurial Narrative , 2002 .

[62]  David J. Cooper,et al.  Business Planning as Pedagogy: Language and Control in a Changing Institutional Field , 1998 .

[63]  Gaylen N. Chandler,et al.  The founder's self-assessed competence and venture performance , 1992 .

[64]  Stewart Clegg,et al.  Frameworks of power , 1989 .

[65]  Pierre Bourdieu,et al.  Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action , 1998 .

[66]  Jerome A. Katz,et al.  Reclaiming the space of entrepreneurship in society: geographical, discursive and social dimensions , 2004 .

[67]  Etienne Wenger,et al.  Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation , 1991 .

[68]  R. Peccei,et al.  ‘The Work You Want, The Help You Need’: Constructing the Customer in Jobcentre Plus , 2007 .

[69]  T. Das,et al.  Time and Entrepreneurial Risk Behavior , 1998 .

[70]  E. Chell Towards researching the ''opportunistic entrepreneur'': A social constructionist approach and research agenda , 2000 .

[71]  M. Ventresca,et al.  Contested Industry Dynamics , 2004 .

[72]  E. Chell Social Enterprise and Entrepreneurship , 2007 .

[73]  J. Everett Organizational Research and the Praxeology of Pierre Bourdieu , 2002 .

[74]  Antoaneta P. Petkova,et al.  Being good or being known: An empirical examination of the dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of organizational reputation , 2005 .

[75]  Joel A. C. Baum,et al.  The embeddedness of strategy , 1997 .

[76]  E. Chell The Entrepreneurial Personality: A Social Construction , 2008 .

[77]  P. Bourdieu Forms of Capital , 2002 .

[78]  W. Creed,et al.  Institutional Contradictions, Praxis, and Institutional Change: A Dialectical Perspective , 2002 .

[79]  Silvia Gherardi,et al.  Doing Gender, Doing Entrepreneurship: An Ethnographic Account of Intertwined Practices , 2004 .

[80]  Basil B. Bernstein,et al.  Class, codes, and control : theoretical studies towards a sociology of language , 1975 .

[81]  Agnès Rocamora,et al.  The Field of Fashion Materialized: A Study of London Fashion Week , 2006 .

[82]  R. Whittington The Work of Strategizing and Organizing: For a Practice Perspective , 2003 .

[83]  J. Brown,et al.  Organizational Learning and Communities-of-Practice: Toward a Unified View of Working, Learning, and Innovation , 1991 .

[84]  P. Bourdieu The market of symbolic goods , 1985 .

[85]  Shyon Baumann,et al.  A general theory of artistic legitimation: How art worlds are like social movements , 2007 .

[86]  Clayton M. Christensen,et al.  CUSTOMER POWER, STRATEGIC INVESTMENT, AND THE FAILURE OF LEADING FIRMS , 1996 .

[87]  Participants’Use of Cultural Knowledge as Cultural Capital in a Dot-Com Start-Up Organization , 2004 .

[88]  Alistair Mutch,et al.  Communities of Practice and Habitus: A Critique , 2003 .

[89]  M. Meckler,et al.  Cuban-American Entrepreneurs: Chance, Complexity and Chaos , 2001 .

[90]  G. Ritzer The Blackwell companion to major contemporary social theorists , 2003 .

[91]  Linda Rouleau,et al.  Micro-Practices of Strategic Sensemaking and Sensegiving: How Middle Managers Interpret and Sell Change Every Day , 2005 .

[92]  R. Whittington Completing the Practice Turn in Strategy Research , 2006 .

[93]  Anthony Giddens,et al.  Social theory and modern sociology , 1988 .

[94]  Robert Cheng Huat Chia,et al.  Strategy as Practical Coping: A Heideggerian Perspective , 2006 .

[95]  John R. Austin,et al.  Clothes Make the Person? The Tailoring of Legitimating Accounts and the Social Construction of Identity , 2002, Organ. Sci..

[96]  Paul M. Hirsch,et al.  From Ambushes to Golden Parachutes: Corporate Takeovers as an Instance of Cultural Framing and Institutional Integration , 1986, American Journal of Sociology.

[97]  David L. Deeds,et al.  The impact of firmspecific capabilities on the amount of capital raised in an initial public offering: Evidence from the biotechnology industry , 1997 .

[98]  Hugh Willmott,et al.  Re-Embedding Situatedness: The Importance of Power Relations in Learning Theory , 2003, Organ. Sci..

[99]  L. Melin,et al.  Micro Strategy and Strategizing: Towards an Activity‐Based View , 2003 .

[100]  Stewart Clegg,et al.  Organization and Control. , 1981 .

[101]  Deborah Dougherty,et al.  Reimagining the Differentiation and Integration of Work for Sustained Product Innovation , 2001 .

[102]  P. Bourdieu The Logic of Practice , 1990 .

[103]  Toby E. Stuart,et al.  Interorganizational Endorsements and the Performance of Entrepreneurial Ventures , 1999 .

[104]  K. Atuahene–Gima,et al.  Resolving the Capability–Rigidity Paradox in New Product Innovation , 2005 .

[105]  P. Berger,et al.  Social Construction of Reality , 1991, The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Mass Media and Society.

[106]  R. Baron Cognitive mechanisms in entrepreneurship: Why and when enterpreneurs think differently than other people , 1998 .

[107]  Alistair R. Anderson,et al.  Entrepreneurial Social Capital , 2007 .

[108]  M. Lounsbury Collective entrepreneurship: the mobilization of college and university recycling coordinators , 1998 .

[109]  M. Archer Making our Way through the World by Margaret S. Archer , 2007 .

[110]  Alistair R. Anderson,et al.  Mumpsimus and the Mything of the Individualistic Entrepreneur , 2007 .

[111]  Murray B. Low,et al.  Movements, bandwagons, and clones: Industry evolution and the entrepreneurial process , 1997 .

[112]  M. Lounsbury Cultural Entrepreneurship: Stories, Legitimacy and the Acquisition of Resources , 2001 .

[113]  Alison Wolf,et al.  Contemporary Sociological Theory: Expanding the Classical Tradition , 1986 .

[114]  Robert Chia,et al.  Strategy-as-practice: reflections on the research agenda , 2004, European Management Review.

[115]  Royston Greenwood,et al.  New to the game and questioning the rules: The experiences and beliefs of founders who start imitative versus innovative firms , 2006 .

[116]  S. Sarasvathy Causation and Effectuation: Toward a Theoretical Shift from Economic Inevitability to Entrepreneurial Contingency , 2001 .

[117]  C. Hardy,et al.  Institutional Entrepreneurship in Emerging Fields: HIV/AIDS Treatment Advocacy in Canada , 2004 .

[118]  Henry Mintzberg,et al.  Managers Not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Management Development , 2004 .

[119]  Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges,et al.  Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs on and off the Organizational Stage , 1991 .

[120]  Lew Perren,et al.  Small Business and Entrepreneurial Research , 2002 .

[121]  J. Hendry Strategic Decision Mking, Discourse, And Strategy As Social Practice , 2000 .

[122]  David J. Johnson,et al.  A Method for Selecting and Training Entrants on New Business Start-up Programmes , 1995 .

[123]  Peter Armstrong Critique of Entrepreneurship , 2005 .

[124]  Mark S. Granovetter The Strength of Weak Ties , 1973, American Journal of Sociology.

[125]  Andrew Hargadon,et al.  When Innovations Meet Institutions: Edison and the Design of the Electric Light , 2001 .