Biology of Borrelia species.

Relapsing fever was known to the physicians of ancient Greece and possibly to those of an earlier civilization in Egypt (92, 180). Extensive epidemics of louse-borne relapsing fever occurred in the ensuing centuries, including the 20th (55). Like plague and cholera, the disease has affected human societies and events. Lenin is said to have remarked, in reference to the outbreaks of louse-borne typhus and relapsing fever rampant during the Russian Revolution, that "either socialism will defeat the louse or the louse will defeat socialism" (224). In the first half of this century, relapsing fever was of considerable interest to microbiologists, not only because of the continuing morbidity and mortality it was causing, but also because of the recognition by several early immunologists that the antigenic variation of relapsing fever was a useful model for studying the immune system. During World War II and its aftermath there were again the conditions of famine and displaced populations that spawn epidemics of relapsing fever. However, this period also saw the mass production of penicillin and DDT. These technological advances provided both an effective treatment and an effective control measure for the disease. Although louse-borne relapsing fever may be on the upsurge again in famine-struck areas of Africa, it has been comparatively quiescent in the world now for almost 40 years. As a result, the number of scientific articles on relapsing fever and borreliae plunged from 50 or more a year before 1950 to less than 10 a year on average since then. Another consequence of this change in attention has been a great reduction in the number of "borreliologists" in the world. Investigators such as Koch, Leishman, Noguchi, Ehrlich, and Metchnikoff at one time were among that number. It is ironic then that, following the decline in study of this group of bacteria, at least one (and probably two) important diseases should be recognized as being caused by members of the species Borrelia. In addition, it appears that those early immunologists were insightful: the antigenic variation evidenced by the relapsing fever borreliae is of basic biological interest. Because of this renewal of curiosity about borreliae, we have attempted to provide a primer on the

[1]  A. Barbour,et al.  A Borrelia-specific monoclonal antibody binds to a flagellar epitope , 1986, Infection and immunity.

[2]  R. Pritchett,et al.  Congenital spirochetosis in calves: association with epizootic bovine abortion. , 1986, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[3]  R. C. Johnson,et al.  Involvement of birds in the epidemiology of the Lyme disease agent Borrelia burgdorferi , 1986, Infection and immunity.

[4]  M. Kaplan,et al.  Isolation and characterization of the Lyme disease spirochete from the skin of patients with erythema chronicum migrans. , 1985, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[5]  T. R. Howe,et al.  Heterogeneity of major proteins in Lyme disease borreliae: a molecular analysis of North American and European isolates. , 1985, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[6]  J. Benach,et al.  Chemical and biologic characterization of a lipopolysaccharide extracted from the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi). , 1985, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[7]  R. Bey,et al.  Isolation of the Lyme Disease Spirochete from Mammals in Minnesota , 1985, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.

[8]  J. Coligan,et al.  Variable major proteins of Borrelia hermsii. Epitope mapping and partial sequence analysis of CNBr peptides , 1985, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[9]  M. Simon,et al.  Antigenic variation is associated with DNA rearrangements in a relapsing fever borrelia , 1985, Cell.

[10]  G. Stanek,et al.  DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LYME DISEASE AND EUROPEAN ARTHROPOD-BORNE BORRELIA INFECTIONS , 1985, The Lancet.

[11]  A. Barbour.  Clonal Polymorphism of Surface Antigens in a Relapsing Fever Borrelia Species , 1985 .

[12]  R. C. Johnson,et al.  Infection of Syrian hamsters with Lyme disease spirochetes , 1984, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[13]  E. Bosler,et al.  Experimental transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete to rabbits. , 1984, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[14]  P. Forterre,et al.  DNA adenine methylation of GATC sequences appeared recently in the Escherichia coli lineage , 1984, Journal of bacteriology.

[15]  A. Steere,et al.  Experimental Lyme disease in rabbits: spirochetes found in erythema migrans and blood , 1984, Infection and immunity.

[16]  A. Steere,et al.  DNA characterization of the spirochete that causes Lyme disease , 1984, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[17]  R. C. Johnson,et al.  Genetic relationship of lyme disease spirochetes to Borrelia, Treponema, and Leptospira spp , 1984, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[18]  A. Barbour.  Isolation and cultivation of Lyme disease spirochetes. , 1984, The Yale journal of biology and medicine.

[19]  Johnson Rc,et al.  Taxonomy of the Lyme disease spirochetes. , 1984, The Yale journal of biology and medicine.

[20]  A. Barbour,et al.  Variation in a major surface protein of Lyme disease spirochetes , 1984, Infection and immunity.

[21]  G. Schmid,et al.  Susceptibility of the Lyme disease spirochete to seven antimicrobial agents. , 1984, The Yale journal of biology and medicine.

[22]  J. Anderson,et al.  Parasitism by Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) and antibodies to spirochetes in mammals at Lyme disease foci in Connecticut, USA. , 1984, Journal of medical entomology.

[23]  A. Barbour,et al.  Structural analysis of the variable major proteins of Borrelia hermsii , 1983, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[24]  J. Vegad,et al.  Observations on the pathology of experimental avian spirochaetosis. , 1983, Research in veterinary science.

[25]  W. Todd,et al.  Lyme disease spirochetes and ixodid tick spirochetes share a common surface antigenic determinant defined by a monoclonal antibody , 1983, Infection and immunity.

[26]  J. Anderson,et al.  Spirochetes in Ixodes dammini and mammals from Connecticut. , 1983, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[27]  A. Barbour,et al.  Variable major proteins of Borrellia hermsii , 1982, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[28]  W. Todd,et al.  Action of penicillin on Borrelia hermsii , 1982, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[29]  F. D. Obenchain,et al.  Physiology of ticks , 1982 .

[30]  S. Akov.  Blood Digestion in Ticks , 1982 .

[31]  C. Lawrence,et al.  Movement of antibody-coated latex beads attached to the spirochete Leptospira interrogans. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[32]  J. Barbieri,et al.  Distribution of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase activities among Treponema pallidum and other spirochetes , 1981, Infection and immunity.

[33]  R. C. Johnson,et al.  In vivo evidence that an intact lytic complement pathway is not essential for successful removal of circulating Borrelia turicatae from mouse blood , 1981, Infection and immunity.

[34]  T. Stanton,et al.  Enumeration and selective isolation of rumen spirochetes , 1979, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[35]  A. Steere,et al.  Neurologic Abnormalities of Lyme Disease , 1979, Medicine.

[36]  H. Berg,et al.  Movement of microorganisms in viscous environments , 1979, Nature.

[37]  R. D. Smith,et al.  Pathobiology of Borrelia theileri in the tropical cattle tick, Boophilus microplus. , 1978, Journal of invertebrate pathology.

[38]  S. Holt.  Anatomy and chemistry of spirochetes , 1978, Microbiological reviews.

[39]  A. E. Ritchie.  MORPHOLOGY OF LEPTOSPIRES , 1976 .

[40]  Russell C. Johnson.  The Biology of parasitic spirochetes , 1976 .

[41]  K. Hougen.  Electron microscopy of Borrelia merionesi and Borrelia recurrentis. , 2009, Acta pathologica et microbiologica Scandinavica. Section B: Microbiology and immunology.

[42]  H. Stoenner.  Biology of Borrelia hermsii in Kelly medium. , 1974, Applied microbiology.

[43]  R. Kelly,et al.  Lipid Catabolism of Relapsing Fever Borreliae , 1974, Infection and immunity.

[44]  P. Cox,et al.  Leptospiral motility , 1974, Nature.

[45]  R. M. Smibert,et al.  Inhibition of growth of treponemes by antimicrobial agents. , 1971, The British journal of venereal diseases.

[46]  A. Bryceson,et al.  Louse-Borne Relapsing Fever; A Clinical and Laboratory Study of 62 Cases in Ethiopia and a Reconsideration of the Literature , 1970 .

[47]  A. Aeschlimann,et al.  Observations of the Ultrastructure of Various Borrelia species (blood and tissue forms). , 1968, Acta tropica.

[48]  Y. Balashov.  The transovarial transmission of the spirochaete Borrelia sogdiana by the tick Ornithodoros papillipes and its effect on the biological properties of the causal agent. , 1968 .

[49]  O. Felsenfeld.  BORRELIAE, HUMAN RELAPSING FEVER, AND PARASITE-VECTOR-HOST RELATIONSHIPS. , 1965, Bacteriological reviews.

[50]  J. A. Mckièl,et al.  In vitro sensitivity of Leptospira to varioqs antimicrobial agents. , 1961, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[51]  A. Aeschlimann.  Développement embryonnaire d'Ornithodorus moubata (Murray) et transmission transovarienne de Borrelia duttoni , 1958 .

[52]  H. Sparrow.  Rappel d'observations concernant le comportement des spirochètes de la fièvre récurrente dans le pou. , 1956 .

[53]  I M ROLLO,et al.  Acquired resistance to penicillin and to neoarsphenamine in Spirochaeta recurrentis. , 1952, British journal of pharmacology and chemotherapy.

[54]  E. Delamater,et al.  STUDIES ON THE LIFE CYCLE OF SPIROCHETES , 1950, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[55]  D. Bocciarelli,et al.  Electron-microscope studies on relapsing fever spirochaetes , 1948, Epidemiology and Infection.

[56]  H. Fairbairn,et al.  Polymorphism in Treponema recurrentis and Spirochaeta vincenti. , 1947, Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology.

[57]  M. Baltazard.  The Identification of Relapsing Fever Spirochaetes. The Individuality of the Species Spirochaeta recurrentis. , 1947 .

[58]  M. Soule,et al.  The structure of Spirochaeta novyi as revealed by the electron microscope. , 1945, Journal of bacteriology.

[59]  V. Lloyd.  THE JARISCH-HERXHEIMER REACTION , 1945, The British journal of venereal diseases.

[60]  G. Davis.  Relapsing Fever : the Tick Ornithodoros turicata as a Spirochetal Reservoir. , 1943 .

[61]  R. Ashbel.  Observations on Some Strains of Spirochaeta Persica in Palestine , 1942 .

[62]  S. Adler,et al.  The Behaviour of Spirochaeta persica in Pediculus humanus. , 1942 .

[63]  R. Oag.  The Growth of Borrelia duttoni in the Developing Egg. , 1939 .

[64]  M. Beck.  California Field and Laboratory Studies on Relapsing Fever , 1937 .

[65]  H. Wright,et al.  Relapsing Fever in Texas , 1933 .

[66]  R. Tálice,et al.  Sur la culture du Treponema hispanicum , 1929 .

[67]  H. Kroó.  Zur Frage der Persistenz der Spirochäten bei experimenteller Rekurrens , 1926 .

[68]  Rick Durrett,et al.  Genome rearrangement , 2022 .