CARBONATE CHEMISTRY FOR SEQUESTERING FOSSIL CARBON

▪ Abstract Fossil fuels play a crucial role in satisfying growing world energy demands, but their continued use could cause irreparable harm to the environment. Unless virtually all anthropogenic carbon dioxide is captured, either at the source or subsequently from the air, and disposed of safely and permanently, fossil fuels may have to be phased out over the next few decades. Sequestration of waste carbon dioxide will require methods that can safely store several trillion tons of carbon dioxide. Long-term storage of a gaseous substance is fraught with uncertainty and hazards, but carbonate chemistry offers permanent solutions to the disposal problem. Carbonates can be formed from carbon dioxide and metal oxides in reactions that are thermodynamically favored and exothermic, which result in materials that can be safely and permanently kept out of the active carbon stocks in the environment. Carbonate sequestration methods require the development of an extractive minerals industry that provides the base i...

[1]  D. N. Nilsen,et al.  Carbon dioxide sequestration by direct mineral carbonation with carbonic acid , 2000 .

[2]  V. Ramanathan.  The Greenhouse Theory of Climate Change: A Test by an Inadvertent Global Experiment , 1988, Science.

[3]  M. Thring.  World Energy Outlook , 1977 .

[4]  David W. Keith,et al.  Sinks, Energy Crops and Land Use: Coherent Climate Policy Demands an Integrated Analysis of Biomass , 2001 .

[5]  B. Hitchon,et al.  Aquifer disposal of carbon dioxide : hydrodynamic and mineral trapping : proof of concept , 1996 .

[6]  Stephen H. Schneider,et al.  Earth systems engineering and management , 2001, Nature.

[7]  K. Lackner,et al.  Zero emission coal , 2000 .

[8]  Kathryn L. Nagy,et al.  Chemical weathering rate laws and global geochemical cycles , 1994 .

[9]  Klaus S. Lackner,et al.  Thermodynamic considerations of using chlorides to accelerate the carbonate formation from magnesium silicates , 1999 .

[10]  Atul K. Jain,et al.  Energy implications of future stabilization of atmospheric CO2 content , 1998, Nature.

[11]  Ken Caldeira,et al.  Enhanced carbonate dissolution : a means of sequestering waste CO2 as ocean bicarbonate , 1999 .

[12]  F. Saito,et al.  Enhancement of acid extraction of magnesium and silicon from serpentine by mechanochemical treatment , 1997 .

[13]  H Herzog,et al.  Capturing greenhouse gases. , 2000, Scientific American.

[14]  S P Potter,et al.  Energy supply. , 1973, Science.

[15]  Sam Holloway,et al.  STORAGE OF FOSSIL FUEL-DERIVED CARBON DIOXIDE BENEATH THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH , 2001 .

[16]  W. A. Cunningham,et al.  Utilization of Texas serpentine. , 1950 .

[17]  E. Peltzer,et al.  Direct experiments on the ocean disposal of fossil fuel CO2 , 1999, Science.

[18]  Haroon S. Kheshgi,et al.  Sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide by increasing ocean alkalinity , 1995 .

[19]  M. Steinberg.  The carnol process for CO2 mitigation from power plants and the transportation sector , 1996 .

[20]  C. Marchetti.  On geoengineering and the CO2 problem , 1977 .

[21]  S. Pacala,et al.  Projecting the future of the U.S. carbon sink , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[22]  Dissolution rate of liquid CO2 in pressurized water flows and the effect of clathrate films , 1997 .

[23]  W. Johannes.  An experimental investigation of the system MgO-SiO 2 -H 2 O-CO 2 , 1969 .

[24]  J. R. Dyni.  Sodium carbonate resources of the Green River Formation in Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming , 1997 .

[25]  J. Eyre,et al.  Carbon dioxide sequestration as stable carbonate minerals – environmental barriers , 2001 .

[26]  Klaus S. Lackner,et al.  Carbon Dioxide Sequestering Using Ultramafic Rocks , 1998 .

[27]  K. Kvenvolden,et al.  Gas Hydrate and Humans , 2000 .

[28]  H. Ziock,et al.  Evaluation of ultramafic deposits in the Eastern United States and Puerto Rico as sources of magnesium for carbon dioxide sequestration , 2000 .

[29]  G. E. Rush,et al.  CONTINUING STUDIES ON DIRECT AQUEOUS MINERAL CARBONATION FOR CO2 SEQUESTRATION , 2002 .

[30]  Klaus S. Lackner,et al.  Kinetics of thermal dehydroxylation and carbonation of magnesium hydroxide , 1996 .

[31]  M. E. Dry,et al.  Update of the Sasol Synfuels Process , 1987 .

[32]  Langdon,et al.  Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs , 1999, Science.

[33]  E. Boyle,et al.  The global carbon cycle: a test of our knowledge of earth as a system. , 2000, Science.

[34]  J. N. Butler,et al.  Carbon Dioxide Equilibria and their Applications , 1982 .

[35]  David William Keith.  Geoengineering the Climate: History and Prospect 1 , 2000, The Ethics of Nanotechnology, Geoengineering and Clean Energy.

[36]  Jennifer C. Davis.  Protecting privacy in the cyber era , 2000, IEEE Technol. Soc. Mag..

[37]  D Okrent,et al.  On Intergenerational Equity and Its Clash with Intragenerational Equity and on the Need for Policies to Guide the Regulation of Disposal of Wastes and Other Activities Posing Very Long-Term Risks , 1999, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[38]  J. Houghton.  Climate change 1994 : radiative forcing of climate change and an evaluation of the IPCC IS92 emission scenarios , 1995 .

[39]  H. E. Dunsmore,et al.  A geological perspective on global warming and the possibility of carbon dioxide removal as calcium carbonate mineral , 1992 .

[40]  E. M. Drake,et al.  CARBON DIOXIDE RECOVERY AND DISPOSAL FROM LARGE ENERGY SYSTEMS , 1996 .

[41]  C. Allen,et al.  The importance of rapid, disturbance-induced losses in carbon management and sequestration , 2002 .

[42]  R. Garrels,et al.  The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years , 1983 .

[43]  Renu Sharma,et al.  Magnesium Hydroxide Dehydroxylation/Carbonation Reaction Processes: Implications for Carbon Dioxide Mineral Sequestration , 2004 .

[44]  W. Seifritz,et al.  CO2 disposal by means of silicates , 1990, Nature.

[45]  J. B. Rapp,et al.  Silica-Carbonate Alteration of Serpentine; Wall Rock Alteration in Mercury Deposits of the California Coast Ranges , 1973 .

[46]  Renu Sharma,et al.  Magnesium Hydroxide Dehydroxylation: In Situ Nanoscale Observations of Lamellar Nucleation and Growth , 2001 .

[47]  Howard J. Herzog,et al.  Ocean disposal of CO2 at intermediate depths , 1995 .

[48]  Wallace S. Broecker,et al.  Neutralization of Fossil Fuel CO2 by Marine Calcium Carbonate , 1977 .

[49]  Olav Kårstad,et al.  Saline aquifer storage of carbon dioxide in the Sleipner project , 1998 .

[50]  Yukio Yanagisawa,et al.  A new CO2 disposal process via artificial weathering of calcium silicate accelerated by acetic acid , 2001 .

[51]  T. Kojima,et al.  Absorption and fixation of carbon dioxide by rock weathering , 1997 .

[52]  G. E. Rush,et al.  Research status on the sequestration of carbon dioxide by direct aqueous mineral carbonation , 2001 .

[53]  K. Shrader-Frechette,et al.  Duties to Future Generations, Proxy Consent, Intra‐ and Intergenerational Equity: The Case of Nuclear Waste , 2000, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[54]  Takahashi Taro,et al.  Carbonate chemistry of the surface waters of the world oceans , 1980 .

[55]  Kui Zhang,et al.  Conversion of Greenhouse Gases to Synthesis Gas and Higher Hydrocarbons , 2001 .

[56]  Olav Kaarstad.  Emission-free fossil energy from Norway , 1992 .

[57]  David Archer,et al.  Multiple timescales for neutralization of fossil fuel CO2 , 1997 .

[58]  Klaus S. Lackner,et al.  Carbon dioxide disposal in carbonate minerals , 1995 .

[59]  C. Sweeney,et al.  Effect of calcium carbonate saturation state on the calcification rate of an experimental coral reef , 2000 .

[60]  K. Rodgers,et al.  Daily, seasonal and interannual variability of sea-surface carbon and nutrient concentration in the equatorial Pacific Ocean , 1996 .

[61]  R. W. Buddemeier,et al.  The future of coral reefs in an age of global change , 2001 .

[62]  H. Rogner.  AN ASSESSMENT OF WORLD HYDROCARBON RESOURCES , 1997 .

[63]  Miriam Lev-On,et al.  Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions with Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects: A Life Cycle Assessment Approach , 2001 .

[64]  Ken Caldeira,et al.  Accelerating carbonate dissolution to sequester carbon dioxide in the ocean: Geochemical implications , 2000 .

[65]  H. R. Compton,et al.  The 1986 Lake Nyos Gas Disaster in Cameroon, West Africa , 1987, Science.

[66]  Curtis M. Oldenburg,et al.  Process Modeling of CO2 Injection into Natural Gas Reservoirs for Carbon Sequestration and Enhanced Gas Recovery , 2001 .

[67]  Harry Audus,et al.  Greenhouse gas mitigation technology: An overview of the CO2 capture and sequestration studies and further activities of the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme , 1997 .