Technological shifts in surface metrology

This paper gives an overview of the progress which has been made in surface metrology over the past ten years. It updates the surface classification system, and discusses the practical and theoretical reasons for the technological shifts which have occurred. This includes the use of surfaces with predetermined features as an alternative to traditional machined surfaces, and the move from simple to freeform shapes. The paper discusses technological shifts in association, filtration, numeric parametric techniques, fractals associated with function and standardisation. Many examples are given in order to contextualise the significance of these technological changes. This paper should help to predict the direction of future developments in surface metrology, and therefore emphasise its importance in functional applications in advanced manufacture.

[1]  S. Jacobson,et al.  Designed high-friction surfaces—Influence of roughness and deformation of the counter surface , 2008 .

[2]  K J Stout,et al.  Development of methods for the characterisation of roughness in three dimensions , 2000 .

[3]  Ian M. Hutchings,et al.  Hydrodynamic lubrication of textured steel surfaces under reciprocating sliding conditions , 2007 .

[4]  P Angeli,et al.  Hydrodynamics of Taylor flow in small channels: A Review , 2008 .

[5]  U. Tschudi,et al.  A universal algorithm for the alignment of sculptured surfaces , 1992 .

[6]  Peter Andersson,et al.  Microlubrication effect by laser-textured steel surfaces , 2007 .

[7]  Christopher A. Brown,et al.  Fundamental scales of adhesion and area-scale fractal analysis , 2001 .

[8]  Branko Grünbaum,et al.  Tilings and patterns : an introduction , 1990 .

[9]  Yuji Furukawa,et al.  Frictional Properties of the Micro-Textured Surface of Anisotropically Etched Silicon , 2003 .

[10]  Robust surface fitting-Using weights based on à priori knowledge about the measurement process , 2009 .

[11]  D. J. Whitehouse,et al.  Surfaces — A Link between Manufacture and Function: , 1978 .

[12]  I. Holopainen.  Riemannian Geometry , 1927, Nature.

[13]  Johan C Berglund,et al.  Milled die steel surface roughness correlation with steel sheet friction , 2010 .

[14]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  An Unambiguous Expression Method of the Surface Texture , 2010 .

[15]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  Freeform surface characterisation - a fresh strategy , 2007 .

[16]  K J Stout,et al.  Engineering surfaces—a philosophy of manufacture (a proposal for good manufacturing practice) , 1998 .

[17]  Manfred Geiger,et al.  New Developments for the Qualification of Technical Surfaces in Forming Processes , 1997 .

[18]  A. Bushby,et al.  Theory of deformation in small volumes of material , 2004, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[19]  Noboru Morita,et al.  Development of cutting tools with microscale and nanoscale textures to improve frictional behavior , 2009 .

[20]  Christopher J. Evans,et al.  “Structured”, “Textured” or “Engineered” Surfaces , 1999 .

[21]  David J. Whitehouse,et al.  The parameter rash — is there a cure? , 1982 .

[22]  N. Kingsbury.  Image processing with complex wavelets , 1999, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[23]  Zhongxiao Peng,et al.  Osteoarthritis diagnosis using wear particle analysis technique: Investigation of correlation between particle and cartilage surface in walking process , 2007 .

[24]  In-Ha Sung,et al.  Design of Surface Micro-structures for Friction Control in Micro-systems Applications , 2002 .

[25]  Role of surface texture of harder surface on subsurface deformation , 2009 .

[26]  Staffan Jacobson,et al.  Influence of surface texture on boundary lubricated sliding contacts , 2003 .

[27]  Hans Nørgaard Hansen,et al.  Dimensional micro and nano metrology , 2006 .

[28]  Takahisa Masuzawa,et al.  State of the Art of Micromachining , 2000 .

[29]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Advanced Techniques for Assessment Surface Topography: Development of a Basis for 3D Surface Texture Standards "Surfstand" , 2003 .

[30]  D G Chetwynd,et al.  Applications of Linear Programming to Engineering Metrology , 1985 .

[31]  K. J. Stout,et al.  A contribution to the debate on surface classifications—random, systematic, unstructured, structured and engineered , 2001 .

[32]  D. Lucca,et al.  Surfaces in Precision Engineering, Microengineering and Nanotechnology , 2003 .

[33]  Jonathan Keller,et al.  Surface topography and tribology of cast iron in boundary lubrication , 2009 .

[34]  Christopher A. Brown,et al.  QUANTIFICATION AND DISCRIMINATION OF LITHIC USE-WEAR: SURFACE PROFILE MEASUREMENTS AND LENGTH-SCALE FRACTAL ANALYSIS* , 2009 .

[35]  Wen-jie Ma,et al.  Effect of surface texture on transfer layer formation and tribological behaviour of copper-graphite composite , 2011 .

[36]  C Michael Garner,et al.  Lithography for enabling advances in integrated circuits and devices , 2012, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[37]  P. M. Lonardo,et al.  Emerging trends in surface metrology , 2002 .

[38]  J. Hannay,et al.  Topography of random surfaces , 1978, Nature.

[39]  Dae-Eun Kim,et al.  Effect of surface topography on the frictional behavior at the micro/nano-scale , 2003 .

[40]  Ueli Aebi,et al.  Early detection of aging cartilage and osteoarthritis in mice and patient samples using atomic force microscopy. , 2009, Nature nanotechnology.

[41]  A study on the frictional response of reptilian shed skin , 2011 .

[42]  F. Borodich,et al.  Surface integrals for domains with fractal boundaries and some applications to elasticity , 2000, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[43]  David J Whitehouse,et al.  Surface geometry, miniaturization and metrology , 2012, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[44]  S. Hansson,et al.  Characterisation of Titanium Dental Implants. II: Local Biomechanical Model , 2010 .

[45]  Hans H. Gatzen,et al.  Wear of single crystal silicon as a function of surface roughness , 2003 .

[46]  C. A. Brown,et al.  Effect of surface roughness on kinetics of mass transfer during gas carburising , 2007 .

[47]  C. Butler,et al.  SCOUT - Surface Characterization Open-Source Universal Toolbox , 2002 .

[48]  T. Dean,et al.  A study of surface topography, friction and lubricants in metalforming , 2000 .

[49]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Paradigm shifts in surface metrology. Part I. Historical philosophy , 2007, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[50]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  Roundness filtration by using a robust regression filter , 2011 .

[51]  J. Greenwood,et al.  Contact of nominally flat surfaces , 1966, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[52]  Evaluating the ability of different characterization parameters to describe the surface of fried foods. , 2010, Scanning.

[53]  C. A. Brown,et al.  Describing ground surface texture using contact profilometry and fractal analysis , 1991 .

[54]  P. Scott,et al.  Freeform surface filtering using the diffusion equation , 2011, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[55]  David J. Whitehouse,et al.  Function maps and the role of surfaces , 2001 .

[56]  Kazuhisa Yanagi,et al.  Characterization of geometrical properties of electroplated diamond tools and estimation of its grinding performance , 2011 .

[57]  Christopher A. Brown,et al.  Scale-based correlations of relative areas with fracture of chocolate , 2009 .

[58]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  Pattern analysis and metrology: the extraction of stable features from observable measurements , 2004, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[59]  Zhaoyao Shi,et al.  The relationship between the minimum zone circle and the maximum inscribed circle and the minimum circumscribed circle , 2009 .

[60]  Guoxiong Zhang,et al.  Evaluation of the root-mean-square wavelength of machined 3D surface topography , 1999 .

[61]  J. Raja,et al.  Multi-scale analysis of engineering surfaces , 1995 .

[62]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  Wavelets and their Applications for Surface Metrology , 2008 .

[63]  P. Scott.  Foundations of topological characterization of surface texture , 1998 .

[64]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  A Generalised Linear and Nonlinear Spline filter , 2011 .

[65]  Hans Nørgaard Hansen,et al.  Quantitative Characterisation of Surface Texture , 2000 .

[66]  David J. Whitehouse,et al.  Fractal or fiction , 2001 .

[67]  B. Bhushan.  Handbook of micro/nano tribology , 1995 .

[68]  Mehmet Acet,et al.  Reflection properties of nanostructure-arrayed silicon surfaces , 2000 .

[69]  Nicholas I. M. Gould,et al.  Trust Region Methods , 2000, MOS-SIAM Series on Optimization.

[70]  R. Heiberger,et al.  Design of an S Function for Robust Regression Using Iteratively Reweighted Least Squares , 1992 .

[71]  C. M. Shakarji,et al.  Reference Algorithms for Chebyshev and One-Sided Data Fitting for Coordinate Metrology , 2004 .

[72]  V. Srinivasan.  Theory of Dimensioning: An Introduction to Parameterizing Geometric Models , 2003 .

[73]  Li Xiao,et al.  A study on the effect of surface topography on rough friction in roller contact , 2003 .

[74]  Liam Blunt,et al.  A Fast Algorithm for the High Order Linear and Nonlinear Gaussian Regression filter , 2009 .

[75]  R. D. Arnell,et al.  The effect of substrate surface roughness on the wear of DLC coatings , 2000 .

[76]  Jitendra Malik,et al.  Scale-Space and Edge Detection Using Anisotropic Diffusion , 1990, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[77]  Max A. Viergever,et al.  Efficient and reliable schemes for nonlinear diffusion filtering , 1998, IEEE Trans. Image Process..

[78]  Tosiyasu L. Kunii,et al.  Algorithms for Extracting Correct Critical Points and Constructing Topological Graphs from Discrete Geographical Elevation Data , 1995, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[79]  R. Barrack,et al.  Corrosion and wear at the modular interface of uncemented femoral stems. , 1994, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. British volume.

[80]  A. A. Torrance,et al.  Abbott curves characteristics of turned surfaces , 2003 .

[81]  Shirong Ge,et al.  Experimental study on the characterization of worn surface topography with characteristic roughness parameter , 2003 .

[82]  Michael Krystek,et al.  Form filtering by splines , 1996 .

[83]  P. Boggs,et al.  A Stable and Efficient Algorithm for Nonlinear Orthogonal Distance Regression , 1987 .

[84]  C. A. Brown,et al.  Investigation of surface topography differences in native and exotic invertebrates in the St. Lawrence River. , 2010, Scanning.

[85]  I. Etsion,et al.  The effect of surface regular microtopography on fretting fatigue life , 2002 .

[86]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Diffusion filtration for the evaluation of MEMs surface , 2012 .

[87]  W. Sweldens.  The Lifting Scheme: A Custom - Design Construction of Biorthogonal Wavelets "Industrial Mathematics , 1996 .

[88]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  A new free-form surface fitting method for precision coordinate metrology , 2009 .

[89]  Guoliang Xu.  Convergence of discrete Laplace-Beltrami operators over surfaces , 2004 .

[90]  H. Trumpold,et al.  Grinding Mode Identification by Means of Surface Characterization , 1994 .

[91]  A. A. Voevodin,et al.  Laser surface texturing for adaptive solid lubrication , 2006 .

[92]  M. S. Shunmugam,et al.  Two- and Three-Dimensional Analyses of Surfaces According to the E-System: , 1974 .

[93]  D. Howie,et al.  Loosening of matt and polished cemented femoral stems , 1998 .

[94]  Wolfram Hage,et al.  Experiments with three-dimensional riblets as an idealized model of shark skin , 2000 .

[95]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Paradigm shifts in surface metrology. Part II. The current shift , 2007, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[96]  Agostino G. Bruzzone,et al.  Advances in engineered surfaces for functional performance , 2008 .

[97]  Michael Krystek,et al.  Discrete L-spline filtering in roundness measurements , 1996 .

[98]  S. Melkote,et al.  Frictional response of precision finished surfaces in pure sliding , 2005 .

[99]  Pawel Pawlus,et al.  Recent trends in surface metrology , 2011 .

[100]  Heinz-Jürgen Böhm,et al.  Parameters for evaluating the wearing behaviour of surfaces , 1992 .

[101]  Benoit B. Mandelbrot,et al.  Fractal Geometry of Nature , 1984 .

[102]  Yoshiteru Yasuda,et al.  Effect of surface texturing on friction reduction between ceramic and steel materials under lubricated sliding contact , 2003 .

[103]  H K Genant,et al.  Osteoarthritis of the knee: comparison of radiography, CT, and MR imaging to assess extent and severity. , 1991, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[104]  K. Sawada,et al.  Manufacture of Multiple-focus Micro Fresnel Lenses by Means of Nonrotational Diamond Grooving , 2002 .

[106]  M. S. Shunmugam,et al.  Evaluation of circularity from coordinate and form data using computational geometric techniques , 2000 .

[107]  I. Křupka,et al.  Effect of surface texturing on rolling contact fatigue within mixed lubricated non-conformal rolling/sliding contacts , 2010 .

[108]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Feature Extraction for Structured Surface Based on Surface Networks and Edge Detection , 2006 .

[110]  Sam Anand,et al.  Minimum-zone form tolerance evaluation using particle swarm optimisation , 2008, Int. J. Intell. Syst. Technol. Appl..

[111]  T. Thomas,et al.  Implementation of Whitehouse's method for calculating properties of self-affine fractal profiles , 2008 .

[112]  N. M. Bujurke,et al.  Effect of surface roughness on magnetohydrodynamic squeeze film characteristics between finite rectangular plates , 2011 .

[113]  J. Seewig,et al.  Linear and robust Gaussian regression filters , 2005 .

[114]  Comparative study of surface roughness and tribological behavior during running-in period of hard coatings deposited by lateral rotating cathode arc , 2010 .

[115]  M. Berry,et al.  On the Weierstrass-Mandelbrot fractal function , 1980, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[116]  Robert Andersen.  Modern Methods for Robust Regression , 2007 .

[117]  M. Komaraiah,et al.  Investigation of surface roughness and accuracy in ultrasonic machining , 1988 .

[118]  Volker Wittwer,et al.  Antireflective transparent covers for solar devices , 2000 .

[119]  Cha'o-Kuang Chen,et al.  Quality assessment on a conical taper part based on the minimum zone definition using genetic algorithms , 2004 .

[120]  Bengt-Göran Rosén,et al.  A quantitative method to estimate high gloss polished tool steel surfaces , 2011 .

[121]  Bengt-Göran Rosén,et al.  On linking customer requirements to surfaces : Two Industrial- and Engineering design case studies , 2011 .

[122]  G. Stachowiak,et al.  Shape of wear particles found in human knee joints and their relationship to osteoarthritis. , 1998, British journal of rheumatology.

[123]  Derek G. Chetwynd,et al.  Friction and wear behaviour of pyramidal nanoscaled surface features , 2008 .

[124]  Åke Björck,et al.  Numerical methods for least square problems , 1996 .

[125]  Paul J. Besl,et al.  A Method for Registration of 3-D Shapes , 1992, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[126]  Bengt-Göran Rosén,et al.  Interactive surface modelling, an implementation of an expert system for specification of surface roughness and topography , 1995 .

[127]  Paul J. Scott,et al.  Metrological characteristics of dual-tree complex wavelet transform for surface analysis , 2005 .

[128]  The Digital Measurement of Peak Parameters on Surface Profiles , 1978 .

[129]  P. Rangsten,et al.  Designed abrasive diamond surfaces , 1999 .

[130]  G. Stachowiak,et al.  Numerical analysis of wear particles from non-arthritic and osteoarthritic human knee joints , 1997 .

[131]  Paul Morantz,et al.  Ultra-precision: enabling our future , 2012, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[132]  Gwidon Stachowiak,et al.  Changes Occurring in the Surface Morphology of Articular Cartilage During Wear , 2000 .

[133]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Third generation wavelet for the extraction of morphological features from micro and nano scalar surfaces , 2004 .

[134]  H. P. Lee,et al.  Contact mechanics of surfaces with various models of roughness descriptions , 2001 .

[135]  David J. Whitehouse,et al.  Handbook of Surface and Nanometrology , 2002 .

[136]  A minimax fitting algorithm for ultra-precision aspheric surfaces , 2011 .

[137]  Ming-Chuan Leu,et al.  Fractal geometry modeling with applications in surface characterisation and wear prediction , 1995 .

[138]  Kazuhisa Yanagi,et al.  A Robust Spline Filter on the basis of L2-norm , 2005 .

[139]  Liam Blunt,et al.  Surface characterisation-based tool wear monitoring in peripheral milling , 2009 .

[140]  D. Whitehouse,et al.  The properties of random surfaces of significance in their contact , 1970, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[141]  Greg F. Naterer,et al.  Surface micro-grooves for near-wall exergy and flow control: application to aircraft intake de-icing , 2005 .

[142]  D. Wiklund,et al.  Evaluation of surface topography parameters for friction prediction in stamping , 2004 .

[143]  Jianwei Ma,et al.  Complex ridgelets for shift invariant characterization of surface topography with line singularities , 2005 .

[144]  Xiang Jiang,et al.  Robust Solution for the Evaluation of Stratified Functional Surfaces , 2010 .

[145]  Guojun Lu,et al.  Review of shape representation and description techniques , 2004, Pattern Recognit..

[146]  K. J. Stout,et al.  The Analysis of the Three Dimensional Topography of the Grinding Process , 1989 .

[147]  Les A. Piegl,et al.  The NURBS Book , 1995, Monographs in Visual Communication.

[148]  Sung Joon Ahn,et al.  Least Squares Orthogonal Distance Fitting of Curves and Surfaces in Space , 2004, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[149]  S. Coakes.  SPSS : analysis without anguish : version 20.0 for Windows , 2017 .

[150]  Son H. Bui,et al.  A framework for Internet-based surface texture analysis and information system , 2005 .

[151]  K. J. Stout,et al.  Development of a lifting wavelet representation for surface characterization , 2000, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[152]  K. Kang,et al.  Analysis of changes in 3D surface texture anisotropy ratio parameter and friction during sheet rolling campaigns , 2008 .

[153]  Aiguo Song,et al.  An immune evolutionary algorithm for sphericity error evaluation , 2004 .

[154]  S. Senturia.  Microsystem Design , 2000 .