Bone cancer.

Primary bone cancers are extremely rare neoplasms, accounting for fewer than 0.2% of all cancers. The evaluation and treatment of patients with bone cancers requires a multidisciplinary team of physicians, including musculoskeletal, medical, and radiation oncologists, and surgeons and radiologists with demonstrated expertise in the management of these tumors. Long-term surveillance and follow-up are necessary for the management of treatment late effects related to surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. These guidelines discuss the management of chordoma, giant cell tumor of the bone, and osteosarcoma.

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[31]  H. Tsujii,et al.  Carbon ion radiotherapy for sacral chordoma. , 2011, The British journal of radiology.

[32]  A. Mootha,et al.  En bloc excision and autogenous fibular reconstruction for aggressive giant cell tumor of distal radius: a report of 12 cases and review of literature , 2011, Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research.

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[35]  D. Kondziolka,et al.  Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Chordoma: A Report From the North American Gamma Knife Consortium , 2011, Neurosurgery.

[36]  W. Schlegel,et al.  Intensity modulated radiotherapy in the management of sacral chordoma in primary versus recurrent disease. , 2010, Radiotherapy and oncology : journal of the European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology.

[37]  G. Bacci,et al.  High grade osteosarcoma of the extremities metastatic to the lung: long-term results in 323 patients treated combining surgery and chemotherapy, 1985-2005. , 2010, Surgical oncology.

[38]  X. Liu,et al.  Interferon Alfa-2b for Recurrent and Metastatic Giant Cell Tumor of the Spine: Report of Two Cases , 2010, Spine.

[39]  W. Mendenhall,et al.  Radiotherapy in the Management of Giant Cell Tumor of Bone , 2010, American journal of clinical oncology.

[40]  J. Godbold,et al.  Clival chordomas: clinical management, results, and complications in 71 patients. , 2010, Journal of neurosurgery.

[41]  P. Rutkowski,et al.  The megavoltage radiation therapy in treatment of patients with advanced or difficult giant cell tumors of bone. , 2010, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[42]  P. Casali,et al.  Analysis of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and downstream pathways in chordomas. , 2010, Neuro-oncology.

[43]  Jie Tang,et al.  Prognostic factors for long-term outcome of patients with surgical resection of skull base chordomas—106 cases review in one institution , 2010, Neurosurgical Review.

[44]  P. Ruggieri,et al.  Surgical Margins and Local Control in Resection of Sacral Chordomas , 2010, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[45]  P. Papagelopoulos,et al.  Recurrence After and Complications Associated With Adjuvant Treatments for Sacral Giant Cell Tumor , 2010, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[46]  B. Potter,et al.  Office-based Core Needle Biopsy of Bone and Soft Tissue Malignancies: An Accurate Alternative to Open Biopsy with Infrequent Complications , 2010, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[47]  I. Yang,et al.  Adjuvant radiation therapy and chondroid chordoma subtype are associated with a lower tumor recurrence rate of cranial chordoma , 2010, Journal of Neuro-Oncology.

[48]  T. Yamashita,et al.  Giant cell tumor of the sacrum treated with selective arterial embolization , 2010, International Journal of Clinical Oncology.

[49]  N. Jambhekar,et al.  Metastatic Giant Cell Tumor of Bone: Are There Associated Factors and Best Treatment Modalities? , 2010, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[50]  David M. Thomas,et al.  Denosumab in patients with giant-cell tumour of bone: an open-label, phase 2 study. , 2010, The Lancet. Oncology.

[51]  C. Errani,et al.  Giant cell tumor of the extremity: A review of 349 cases from a single institution. , 2010, Cancer treatment reviews.

[52]  F. Marandino,et al.  Chordoma: clinical characteristics, management and prognosis of a case series of 25 patients , 2010, BMC Cancer.

[53]  V. Jansson,et al.  The Influence of Adjuvants on Local Recurrence Rate in Giant Cell Tumour of the Bone , 2010, Acta chirurgica Belgica.

[54]  S. Scully,et al.  Surgery Significantly Improves Survival in Patients With Chordoma , 2010, Spine.

[55]  H. Gelderblom,et al.  Prognostic factors in pulmonary metastasized high‐grade osteosarcoma , 2009, Pediatric blood & cancer.

[56]  F. Parnis,et al.  Response to erlotinib in a patient with treatment refractory chordoma. , 2009, Anti-cancer drugs.

[57]  P. Casali,et al.  Response to imatinib plus sirolimus in advanced chordoma. , 2009, Annals of oncology : official journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology.

[58]  Y. Yamada,et al.  Challenges of Local Recurrence and Cure in Low Grade Malignant Tumors of the Spine , 2009, Spine.

[59]  P. Opolon,et al.  Target-driven exploratory study of imatinib mesylate in children with solid malignancies by the Innovative Therapies for Children with Cancer (ITCC) European Consortium. , 2009, European journal of cancer.

[60]  G. Draper,et al.  Non-ocular tumours following retinoblastoma in Great Britain 1951 to 2004 , 2009, British Journal of Ophthalmology.

[61]  L. Leong,et al.  Tandem high-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous transplantation in patients with locally advanced or metastatic sarcoma. , 2009, Anticancer research.

[62]  J. Eary,et al.  [F‐18]‐fluorodeoxy‐D‐glucose–positron emission tomography response is associated with outcome for extremity osteosarcoma in children and young adults , 2009, Cancer.

[63]  A. D. Van den Abbeele,et al.  Multicenter phase II trial of sunitinib in the treatment of nongastrointestinal stromal tumor sarcomas. , 2009, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[64]  B. Yeap,et al.  Phase II study of high-dose photon/proton radiotherapy in the management of spine sarcomas. , 2009, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[65]  A. Lazar,et al.  Ewing’s Sarcoma: Standard and Experimental Treatment Options , 2009, Current treatment options in oncology.

[66]  T. Kawase,et al.  Skull base chordomas: efficacy of surgery followed by carbon ion radiotherapy , 2009, Acta Neurochirurgica.

[67]  D. Amelio,et al.  Proton therapy in chordoma of the base of the skull: a systematic review , 2009, Neurosurgical Review.

[68]  W. Tap,et al.  The Multidisciplinary Management of Osteosarcoma , 2009, Current treatment options in oncology.

[69]  S. Burchill.  Molecular abnormalities in Ewing’s sarcoma , 2008, Expert review of anticancer therapy.

[70]  D. Kirsch,et al.  Combination short-course preoperative irradiation, surgical resection, and reduced-field high-dose postoperative irradiation in the treatment of tumors involving the bone. , 2008, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[71]  Raju Sharma,et al.  Whole-body MR imaging with the use of parallel imaging for detection of skeletal metastases in pediatric patients with small-cell neoplasms: comparison with skeletal scintigraphy and FDG PET/CT , 2008, Pediatric Radiology.

[72]  M Beth McCarville,et al.  Combination of gemcitabine and docetaxel in the treatment of children and young adults with refractory bone sarcoma , 2008, Cancer.

[73]  Y. Fujii,et al.  Cranial base chordoma – long term outcome and review of the literature , 2008, Acta Neurochirurgica.

[74]  K. S. Hall,et al.  Limb-sparing surgery preserves more function than amputation: a Scandinavian sarcoma group study of 118 patients. , 2008, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. British volume.

[75]  John H. Healey,et al.  Addition of muramyl tripeptide to chemotherapy for patients with newly diagnosed metastatic osteosarcoma: A report from the Children’s Oncology Group , 2008 .

[76]  D. Loeb,et al.  Dose-finding study of 153Sm-EDTMP in patients with poor prognosis osteosarcoma , 2008 .

[77]  M. Szendrői,et al.  Local recurrence of giant cell tumor of bone after intralesional treatment with and without adjuvant therapy. , 2008, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[78]  Apoorva Gogna,et al.  Image-guided musculoskeletal biopsy. , 2008, Radiologic clinics of North America.

[79]  M. Balke,et al.  Giant cell tumor of bone: treatment and outcome of 214 cases , 2008, Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology.

[80]  Paul A Meyers,et al.  Osteosarcoma: the addition of muramyl tripeptide to chemotherapy improves overall survival--a report from the Children's Oncology Group. , 2008, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[81]  H. Tsuchiya,et al.  Distinguishing benign notochordal cell tumors from vertebral chordoma , 2008, Skeletal Radiology.

[82]  C. Blomqvist,et al.  Cement is recommended in intralesional surgery of giant cell tumors: A Scandinavian Sarcoma Group study of 294 patients followed for a median time of 5 years , 2008, Acta orthopaedica.

[83]  A. Atalar,et al.  A Phase II Study of Cisplatin, Ifosfamide and Epirubicin Combination Chemotherapy in Adults with Nonmetastatic and Extremity Osteosarcomas , 2008, Oncology.

[84]  Thomas Völker,et al.  Positron emission tomography for staging of pediatric sarcoma patients: results of a prospective multicenter trial. , 2007, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[85]  Scott M Schuetze,et al.  Chordoma: the nonsarcoma primary bone tumor. , 2007, The oncologist.

[86]  V. Deshpande,et al.  Intraosseous Benign Notochord Cell Tumors (BNCT): Further Evidence Supporting a Relationship to Chordoma , 2007, The American journal of surgical pathology.

[87]  R. Laing,et al.  High-dose radiotherapy in the management of chordoma and chondrosarcoma of the skull base and cervical spine: Part 1--Clinical outcomes. , 2007, Clinical oncology (Royal College of Radiologists (Great Britain)).

[88]  F. Grosso,et al.  Adding cisplatin (CDDP) to imatinib (IM) re-establishes tumor response following secondary resistance to IM in advanced chordoma , 2007 .

[89]  Michael Scholz,et al.  Effectiveness of carbon ion radiotherapy in the treatment of skull-base chordomas. , 2007, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[90]  R. Grimer,et al.  Radiation-induced sarcomas of bone: factors that affect outcome. , 2007, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. British volume.

[91]  Kristofer J. Jones,et al.  Serial Arterial Embolization for Large Sacral Giant-Cell Tumors: Mid- to Long-term Results , 2007, Spine.

[92]  S. Purohit,et al.  Imaging of giant cell tumor of bone , 2007, Indian journal of orthopaedics.

[93]  V. Trikha,et al.  Giant cell tumor of bone: Is curettage the answer? , 2007, Indian journal of orthopaedics.

[94]  D. Vanel,et al.  SFOP OS94: a randomised trial comparing preoperative high-dose methotrexate plus doxorubicin to high-dose methotrexate plus etoposide and ifosfamide in osteosarcoma patients. , 2007, European journal of cancer.

[95]  M. van Glabbeke,et al.  Improvement in histologic response but not survival in osteosarcoma patients treated with intensified chemotherapy: a randomized phase III trial of the European Osteosarcoma Intergroup. , 2007, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[96]  A. Yasko.  Interferon therapy for giant cell tumor of bone , 2006 .

[97]  P. Casali,et al.  Molecular and Biochemical Analyses of Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Receptor (PDGFR) B, PDGFRA, and KIT Receptors in Chordomas , 2006, Clinical Cancer Research.

[98]  T. Peabody,et al.  Staging of Primary Malignancies of Bone , 2006, CA: a cancer journal for clinicians.

[99]  Z. Gokaslan,et al.  Metastatic disease from spinal chordoma: a 10-year experience. , 2006, Journal of neurosurgery. Spine.

[100]  M. Werner.  Giant cell tumour of bone: morphological, biological and histogenetical aspects , 2006, International Orthopaedics.

[101]  R. Scolyer,et al.  Surgical biopsy with intra-operative frozen section. An accurate and cost-effective method for diagnosis of musculoskeletal sarcomas. , 2006, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. British volume.

[102]  P. Picci,et al.  Histologically verified lung metastases in benign giant cell tumours—14 cases from a single institution , 2006, International Orthopaedics.

[103]  R. O'Donnell,et al.  Local control of long bone giant cell tumour using curettage, burring and bone grafting without adjuvant therapy , 2006, International Orthopaedics.

[104]  T. Delaney,et al.  Sacral chordomas: Impact of high-dose proton/photon-beam radiation therapy combined with or without surgery for primary versus recurrent tumor. , 2006, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[105]  L. Sekhar,et al.  Patient Outcome at Long-term Follow-up after Aggressive Microsurgical Resection of Cranial Base Chordomas , 2006, Neurosurgery.

[106]  S. Schuetze.  Utility of positron emission tomography in sarcomas , 2006, Current opinion in oncology.

[107]  T. Yoshino,et al.  Accurate diagnosis of musculoskeletal lesions by core needle biopsy , 2006, Journal of surgical oncology.

[108]  P. Patrizio,et al.  American Society of Clinical Oncology recommendations on fertility preservation in cancer patients. , 2006, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[109]  H. Kovar,et al.  Ewing's sarcoma family of tumors: current management. , 2006, The oncologist.

[110]  G. Siegal,et al.  Osteosarcoma: anatomic and histologic variants. , 2006, American journal of clinical pathology.

[111]  Piero Picci,et al.  Prognostic factors for osteosarcoma of the extremity treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy , 2006, Cancer.

[112]  J. Weinstein,et al.  Chordoma of the Mobile Spine: Fifty Years of Experience , 2006, Spine.

[113]  J. Eary,et al.  [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography predicts outcome for Ewing sarcoma family of tumors. , 2005, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[114]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with high-dose Ifosfamide, high-dose methotrexate, cisplatin, and doxorubicin for patients with localized osteosarcoma of the extremity: a joint study by the Italian and Scandinavian Sarcoma Groups. , 2005, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

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[116]  F. Sim,et al.  Operative management of sacral chordoma. , 2005, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[117]  H. Mankin,et al.  Treatment of Giant Cell Tumors with Allograft Transplants: A 30-year Study , 2005, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[118]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Grade of chemotherapy-induced necrosis as a predictor of local and systemic control in 881 patients with non-metastatic osteosarcoma of the extremities treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy in a single institution. , 2005, European journal of cancer.

[119]  R. Grimer,et al.  Does Curettage without Adjuvant Therapy Provide Low Recurrence Rates in Giant-Cell Tumors of Bone? , 2005, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[120]  F. Bertoni,et al.  Dedifferentiated parosteal osteosarcoma: The experience of the Rizzoli Institute , 2005, Cancer.

[121]  A. Angiolillo,et al.  Ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide (ICE) reinduction chemotherapy in a large cohort of children and adolescents with recurrent/refractory sarcoma: The Children's Cancer Group (CCG) experience , 2005, Pediatric blood & cancer.

[122]  D. Resnick,et al.  Sacrococcygeal chordoma: MR imaging in 30 patients , 2005, Skeletal Radiology.

[123]  C. Haie-meder,et al.  Chordomas of the base of the skull and upper cervical spine. One hundred patients irradiated by a 3D conformal technique combining photon and proton beams , 2005, Acta oncologica.

[124]  J. Habrand,et al.  Radiotherapeutic Factors in the Management of Cervical-basal Chordomas and Chondrosarcomas , 2004, Neurosurgery.

[125]  F. Grosso,et al.  Imatinib mesylate in chordoma , 2004, Cancer.

[126]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Prognostic Significance of Serum Lactate Dehydrogenase in Osteosarcoma of the Extremity: Experience at Rizzoli on 1421 Patients Treated over the Last 30 Years , 2004, Tumori.

[127]  T. Damron,et al.  Comparison of needle core biopsy and fine-needle aspiration for diagnostic accuracy in musculoskeletal lesions. , 2004, Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine.

[128]  S. Shott,et al.  Results of giant cell tumor of bone treated with intralesional excision. , 2004, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[129]  Y. Ueda,et al.  Intraosseous benign notochordal cell tumours: overlooked precursors of classic chordomas? , 2004, Histopathology.

[130]  Tain‐Hsiung Chen,et al.  Giant-cell tumors of bone: an analysis of 87 cases , 2004, International Orthopaedics.

[131]  Oliver Jäkel,et al.  Results of carbon ion radiotherapy in 152 patients. , 2004, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[132]  S. Smeland,et al.  Scandinavian Sarcoma Group Osteosarcoma Study SSG VIII: prognostic factors for outcome and the role of replacement salvage chemotherapy for poor histological responders. , 2003, European journal of cancer.

[133]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma of the extremities with metastases at presentation: recent experience at the Rizzoli Institute in 57 patients treated with cisplatin, doxorubicin, and a high dose of methotrexate and ifosfamide. , 2003, Annals of oncology : official journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology.

[134]  W. Enneking,et al.  Radiation Therapy for Giant Cell Tumors of Bone , 2003, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[135]  W. Winkelmann,et al.  Primary metastatic osteosarcoma: presentation and outcome of patients treated on neoadjuvant Cooperative Osteosarcoma Study Group protocols. , 2003, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[136]  F. Bertoni,et al.  Malignancy in giant cell tumor of bone , 2003, Cancer.

[137]  S. Chauvie,et al.  Feasibility of Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy in the Treatment of Advanced Cervical Chordoma , 2003, Tumori.

[138]  M. Link,et al.  Presurgical chemotherapy compared with immediate surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy for nonmetastatic osteosarcoma: Pediatric Oncology Group Study POG-8651. , 2003, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[139]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Postrelapse survival in osteosarcoma of the extremities: prognostic factors for long-term survival. , 2003, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[140]  L. Robison,et al.  Limb salvage and amputation in survivors of pediatric lower-extremity bone tumors: what are the long-term implications? , 2002, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[141]  L. Kaban,et al.  Antiangiogenic therapy with interferon alpha for giant cell lesions of the jaws. , 2002, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.

[142]  Z. Gokaslan,et al.  Long‐term follow‐up of patients with giant cell tumor of the sacrum treated with selective arterial embolization , 2002, Cancer.

[143]  J. Eary,et al.  Evaluation of chemotherapy response in pediatric bone sarcomas by [F‐18]‐fluorodeoxy‐D‐glucose positron emission tomography , 2002, Cancer.

[144]  J. Munzenrider,et al.  3-D-Conformal Radiation Therapy for Pediatric Giant Cell Tumors of the Skull Base , 2002, Strahlentherapie und Onkologie.

[145]  S. Ferrari,et al.  High-dose chemotherapy in the treatment of relapsed osteosarcoma: an Italian sarcoma group study. , 2002, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[146]  A. Davis,et al.  Giant Cell Tumor of Long Bone: A Canadian Sarcoma Group Study , 2002, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[147]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma of the extremity: long-term results of the Rizzoli's 4th protocol. , 2001, European journal of cancer.

[148]  C. Haie-meder,et al.  Combination of photon and proton radiation therapy for chordomas and chondrosarcomas of the skull base: the Centre de Protonthérapie D'Orsay experience. , 2001, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

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[150]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Predictive factors of disease-free survival for non-metastatic osteosarcoma of the extremity: an analysis of 300 patients treated at the Rizzoli Institute. , 2001, Annals of oncology : official journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology.

[151]  O. Schober,et al.  Whole-body MR imaging for detection of bone metastases in children and young adults: comparison with skeletal scintigraphy and FDG PET. , 2001, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[152]  J. Wydmański,et al.  Efficacy of radiotherapy for giant cell tumor of bone: given either postoperatively or as sole treatment. , 2001, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[153]  K. Trieb,et al.  Recurrence of curetted and bone-grafted giant-cell tumours with and without adjuvant phenol therapy. , 2001, European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology.

[154]  S. Ferrari,et al.  Long-term outcome for patients with nonmetastatic osteosarcoma of the extremity treated at the istituto ortopedico rizzoli according to the istituto ortopedico rizzoli/osteosarcoma-2 protocol: an updated report. , 2000, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[155]  B. Shmookler,et al.  The percutaneous needle biopsy is safe and recommended in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal masses , 2000, Cancer.

[156]  C. Antonescu,et al.  Low-grade osteogenic sarcoma arising in medullary and surface osseous locations. , 2000, American journal of clinical pathology.

[157]  A. Craft,et al.  Prognostic factors in Ewing's tumor of bone: analysis of 975 patients from the European Intergroup Cooperative Ewing's Sarcoma Study Group. , 2000, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

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[159]  A. Chakravarti,et al.  Megavoltage radiation therapy for axial and inoperable giant-cell tumor of bone. , 1999, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

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[162]  L. White,et al.  Treatment of giant-cell tumors of long bones with curettage and bone-grafting. , 1999, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

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