Chemoprevention: an essential approach to controlling cancer

Mortality that results from the common forms of cancer is still unacceptably high. Despite immense advances in the understanding of the mechanisms of carcinogenesis, in bringing potent new drugs to the clinic and in treating several relatively rare forms of cancer, overall mortality statistics are unlikely to change in a fundamental way until there has been a re-orientation of emphasis in cancer research that will direct greater resources towards prevention of new disease, rather than treatment of end-stage disease.

[1]  Ahmedin Jemal,et al.  Cancer Statistics, 2002 , 2002, CA: a cancer journal for clinicians.

[2]  M. Gottardis,et al.  Beyond tamoxifen: the retinoid X receptor-selective ligand LGD1069 (TARGRETIN) causes complete regression of mammary carcinoma. , 1998, Cancer research.

[3]  J. Massagué,et al.  TGFβ Signaling in Growth Control, Cancer, and Heritable Disorders , 2000, Cell.

[4]  M. Haussler,et al.  Vitamin D Receptor As an Intestinal Bile Acid Sensor , 2002, Science.

[5]  N. Maihle,et al.  The EGF/ErbB Receptor Family and Apoptosis , 2002, Growth factors.

[6]  S. Hilsenbeck,et al.  Suppression of mammary tumorigenesis in transgenic mice by the RXR-selective retinoid, LGD1069. , 2002, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[7]  W. Willett,et al.  Calcium, vitamin D, and colorectal cancer: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. , 1998, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[8]  Tetsuya Yamamoto,et al.  Cross-talk between Transforming Growth Factor-β and Estrogen Receptor Signaling through Smad3* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[9]  M. Sporn.  Hobson's choice and the need for combinations of new agents for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer. , 2002, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[10]  B. Mintz,et al.  Teratocarcinomas and other neoplasms as developmental defects in gene expression. , 1981, Advances in cancer research.

[11]  J. Turkson,et al.  STAT proteins: novel molecular targets for cancer drug discovery , 2000, Oncogene.

[12]  A. Brivanlou,et al.  Signal Transduction and the Control of Gene Expression , 2002, Science.

[13]  S. Markowitz,et al.  Molecular mechanisms of inactivation of TGF-β receptors during carcinogenesis , 2000 .

[14]  Rajnish A. Gupta,et al.  Colorectal cancer prevention and treatment by inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 , 2001, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[15]  J. Herman,et al.  Alterations in DNA methylation: a fundamental aspect of neoplasia. , 1998, Advances in cancer research.

[16]  M. Sporn,et al.  Treatment and prevention of intraepithelial neoplasia: an important target for accelerated new agent development. , 2002, Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research.

[17]  T Misteli,et al.  Protein dynamics: implications for nuclear architecture and gene expression. , 2001, Science.

[18]  J. Simpson,et al.  The Oxford English Dictionary , 1884 .

[19]  Michael Karin,et al.  NF-κB in cancer: from innocent bystander to major culprit , 2002, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[20]  L. Wakefield,et al.  Transforming growth factor-β1 is a new form of tumor suppressor with true haploid insufficiency , 1998, Nature Medicine.

[21]  T. Gelehrter,et al.  Glucocorticoid receptor inhibits transforming growth factor-beta signaling by directly targeting the transcriptional activation function of Smad3. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[22]  G. Kelloff.  Perspectives on cancer chemoprevention research and drug development. , 2000, Advances in cancer research.

[23]  J. Manson,et al.  Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[24]  W. Clark,et al.  The nature of cancer: morphogenesis and progressive (self)-disorganization in neoplastic development and progression. , 1995, Acta oncologica.

[25]  T. Macdonald,et al.  Blocking Smad7 restores TGF-beta1 signaling in chronic inflammatory bowel disease. , 2001, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[26]  E. Bottinger,et al.  A mechanism of suppression of TGF–β/SMAD signaling by NF-κB/RelA , 2000, Genes & Development.

[27]  J. Massagué,et al.  Inhibition of transforming growth factor-β/SMAD signalling by the interferon-γ/STAT pathway , 1999, Nature.

[28]  C. Fiocchi,et al.  TGF-beta/Smad signaling defects in inflammatory bowel disease: mechanisms and possible novel therapies for chronic inflammation. , 2001, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[29]  K D Robertson,et al.  DNA methylation: past, present and future directions. , 2000, Carcinogenesis.

[30]  P. Bunn,et al.  ZD1839, a selective epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, alone and in combination with radiation and chemotherapy as a new therapeutic strategy in non-small cell lung cancer. , 2002, Seminars in oncology.

[31]  G. Omenn,et al.  Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[32]  M. Barbacid,et al.  To cycle or not to cycle: a critical decision in cancer , 2001, Nature reviews. Cancer.

[33]  K. Miyazono,et al.  Convergence of transforming growth factor-beta and vitamin D signaling pathways on SMAD transcriptional coactivators. , 1999, Science.

[34]  B. Katzenellenbogen,et al.  Defining the "S" in SERMs , 2002, Science.

[35]  H. DeLuca,et al.  Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. , 1998, Physiological reviews.

[36]  R. Lotan,et al.  Retinoid chemoprevention of aerodigestive cancer: from basic research to the clinic. , 1995, Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research.

[37]  M. Sporn,et al.  Prevention of cancer in the next millennium: Report of the Chemoprevention Working Group to the American Association for Cancer Research. , 1999, Cancer research.

[38]  Allan Balmain,et al.  TGF-β signaling in tumor suppression and cancer progression , 2001, Nature Genetics.

[39]  P. Marks,et al.  Histone deacetylases and cancer: causes and therapies , 2001, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[40]  M. Sporn,et al.  Prospects for prevention and treatment of cancer with selective PPARgamma modulators (SPARMs). , 2001, Trends in molecular medicine.

[41]  S. Lippman,et al.  Cancer prevention by delay. Commentary re: J. A. O'Shaughnessy et al., Treatment and Prevention of Intraepithelial Neoplasia: An Important Target for Accelerated New Agent Development. Clin. Cancer Res., 8: 314-346, 2002. , 2002, Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research.

[42]  I. J. Lynch,et al.  Expression of estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes and ERbeta isoforms in colon cancer. , 2001, Cancer research.

[43]  J. Gustafsson,et al.  Frequent Loss of Estrogen Receptor-β Expression in Prostate Cancer , 2001 .

[44]  Mina J. Bissell,et al.  Putting tumours in context , 2001, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[45]  B. Teicher.  Tumor Models in Cancer Research , 2001 .

[46]  V. Steele,et al.  Chemoprevention of colon cancer by specific cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, administered during different stages of carcinogenesis. , 2000, Cancer research.

[47]  B. Aggarwal,et al.  Nuclear factor-kappa B and cancer: its role in prevention and therapy. , 2002, Biochemical pharmacology.

[48]  R. Evans,et al.  Nuclear receptors and lipid physiology: opening the X-files. , 2001, Science.

[49]  Seong-Jin Kim,et al.  The Androgen Receptor Represses Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling through Interaction with Smad3* , 2002, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[50]  M. Widschwendter,et al.  Methylation and silencing of the retinoic acid receptor-beta2 gene in breast cancer. , 2000, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[51]  Ester Piek,et al.  Role of Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling in Cancer , 2000 .

[52]  L. Fink,et al.  Cancer : a problem of developmental biology , 1978 .

[53]  M. Sporn,et al.  Carcinogenesis and cancer: different perspectives on the same disease. , 1991, Cancer research.

[54]  J. Herman,et al.  Synergy of demethylation and histone deacetylase inhibition in the re-expression of genes silenced in cancer , 1999, Nature Genetics.

[55]  K. Guyton,et al.  Cancer chemoprevention using natural vitamin D and synthetic analogs. , 2003, Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology.

[56]  J. Darnell,et al.  The role of STATs in transcriptional control and their impact on cellular function , 2000, Oncogene.

[57]  S. Lippman,et al.  Cancer Prevention by Delay , 2002 .

[58]  J. Graff,et al.  Transforming Growth Factor-β Receptor Type I Gene Is Frequently Mutated in Ovarian Carcinomas , 2001 .

[59]  M. Sporn,et al.  Treatment and Prevention of Intraepithelial Neoplasia: An Important Target for Accelerated New Agent Development: Recommendations of the American Association for Cancer Research Task Force on the Treatment and Prevention of Intraepithelial Neoplasia , 2002 .

[60]  M. Anver,et al.  Chemopreventive activity of tamoxifen, N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide, and the vitamin D analogue Ro24-5531 for androgen-promoted carcinomas of the rat seminal vesicle and prostate. , 1995, Cancer research.

[61]  T. Powles,et al.  Continued Breast Cancer Risk Reduction in Postmenopausal Women Treated with Raloxifene: 4-Year Results from the MORE Trial , 2004, Breast Cancer Research and Treatment.

[62]  B. Levin,et al.  The effect of celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, in familial adenomatous polyposis. , 2000, The New England journal of medicine.

[63]  P G Pelicci,et al.  Histone deacetylase-targeted treatment restores retinoic acid signaling and differentiation in acute myeloid leukemia. , 2001, Cancer research.

[64]  M. Morrow,et al.  Tamoxifen, raloxifene, and the prevention of breast cancer. , 1999, Endocrine reviews.

[65]  C K Redmond,et al.  Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[66]  S. Yeh,et al.  From transforming growth factor-β signaling to androgen action: Identification of Smad3 as an androgen receptor coregulator in prostate cancer cells , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[67]  T. Willson,et al.  Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor γ Inhibits Transforming Growth Factor β-induced Connective Tissue Growth Factor Expression in Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells by Interfering with Smad3* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[68]  H L Pearce,et al.  Arzoxifene, a new selective estrogen receptor modulator for chemoprevention of experimental breast cancer. , 2001, Cancer research.

[69]  M. You,et al.  5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine is chemopreventive in a 4-(methyl-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone-induced primary mouse lung tumor model. , 1999, Carcinogenesis.

[70]  K. Umesono,et al.  The nuclear receptor superfamily: The second decade , 1995, Cell.

[71]  Elise C. Kohn,et al.  The microenvironment of the tumour–host interface , 2001, Nature.