The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm

This article uses social movement theory to analyze environmental justice rhetoric. It argues that the environmental justice frame is a master frame that uses discourses about injustice as an effective mobilizing tool. The article identifies an environmental justice paradigm and compares it with the new environmental paradigm. In addition, the article discusses why the environmental justice movement grew so fast and why its adherents find the environmental justice frame so appealing.

[1]  Dorceta E. Taylor.  Central park as a model for social control: Urban parks, social class and leisure behavior in nineteenth-century America , 1999 .

[2]  Elaine B. Sharp,et al.  Citizen Perceptions of Channels for Urban Service Advocacy , 1980 .

[3]  Marvin F. Wideen,et al.  Environmental Quality , 1972 .

[4]  J. D. McCarthy,et al.  Comparative perspectives on social movements : political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings , 1996 .

[5]  J. Harry,et al.  Work and Leisure , 1971 .

[6]  J. Muir.  A Thousand-Mile Walk to the Gulf , 1981 .

[7]  Robert Gottlieb,et al.  Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement , 1993 .

[8]  John D. McCarthy,et al.  Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Introduction: Opportunities, mobilizing structures, and framing processes – toward a synthetic, comparative perspective on social movements , 1996 .

[9]  F. Remington.  Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail , 1981 .

[10]  J. D. McCarthy,et al.  Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Frontmatter , 1996 .

[11]  T. K. Pinhey,et al.  Public Support for Environmental Protection , 1980 .

[12]  Andrew Duff,et al.  Environmentalism, Middle-Class Radicalism and Politics , 1980 .

[13]  Oliver Orr.  Saving American Birds: T. Gilbert Pearson and the Founding of the Audubon Movement , 1992 .

[14]  A. Leopold,et al.  A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There , 2020 .

[15]  Mark S. Mizruchi,et al.  Cohesion, Structural Equivalence, and Similarity of Behavior: An Approach to the Study of Corporate Political Power , 1990 .

[16]  Hanspeter Kriesi,et al.  New social movements and political opportunities in Western Europe , 1992 .

[17]  C. Mills.  Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive , 1940 .

[18]  T. McGarity,et al.  Workers at Risk: The Failed Promise of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration , 1993 .

[19]  J. Muir.  The Mountains of California , 1894, Nature.

[20]  Gary T. Marx,et al.  Collective Behavior And Social Movements: Process and Structure , 1993 .

[21]  Harvey C. Moore,et al.  The Peyote Religion Among the Navaho , 1982 .

[22]  M. Cohen.  The History of the Sierra Club 1892-1970 , 1988 .

[23]  R. Nozick.  Anarchy, State, and Utopia , 1975, Princeton Readings in Political Thought.

[24]  P. Bourdieu,et al.  Reproduction in education, society and culture , 1970 .

[25]  James A. Geschwender.  Explorations in the Theory of Social Movements and Revolutions , 1968 .

[26]  H. Kelley.  Causal schemata and the attribution process , 1972 .

[27]  Sidney C. Sufrin,et al.  The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. , 1966 .

[28]  Charles Perrow,et al.  Insurgency of the Powerless: Farm Worker Movements (1946-1972). , 1977 .

[29]  L. Zurcher,et al.  Citizens for Decency: Antipornography Crusades as Status Defense. , 1976 .

[30]  W. Goldfrank,et al.  Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. , 1975 .

[31]  M. Heirich.  Change of Heart: A Test of Some Widely Held Theories About Religious Conversion , 1977, American Journal of Sociology.

[32]  C. Brockett.  The Structure of Political Opportunities and Peasant Mobilization in Central America , 1991 .

[33]  H. N. Fairchild.  The Romantic Quest , 1992 .

[34]  F. Buttel,et al.  Social Class and Mass Environmental Beliefs , 1978 .

[35]  R. Nozick,et al.  Anarchy, State, and Utopia , 1978 .

[36]  Dorceta E. Taylor.  Blacks and the Environment , 1989 .

[37]  B. Dillingham.  Indian Women and IHS Sterilization Practices. , 1977 .

[38]  D. Snow,et al.  Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation. , 1986 .

[39]  D. Snow,et al.  Inside the Environmental Movement: Meeting The Leadership Challenge , 1991 .

[40]  Fred G. Evenden,et al.  Wilderness and the American Mind , 1968 .

[41]  R. Williams,et al.  American Society: A Sociological Interpretation, , 1970 .

[42]  Roger V. Gould.  MULTIPLE NETWORKS AND MOBILIZATION IN THE PARIS COMMUNE, 1871* , 1991 .

[43]  J. Stine,et al.  Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945–1980. By Andrew Hurley. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. xviii & 246 pp. Maps, tables, endnotes, bibliography, index. Cloth $39.95, paper $16.95 , 1996 .

[44]  David A. Snow,et al.  Social Movements: Perspectives and Issues@@@Social Movements: Readings on Their Emergence, Mobilization, and Dynamics , 1997 .

[45]  A. Lovejoy.  The meaning of romanticism for the historian of ideas , 1941 .

[46]  M. Mizruchi,et al.  The Structure of Corporate Political Action: Interfirm Relations and Their Consequences. , 1992 .

[47]  Ralph H. Turner,et al.  Collective behavior, 3rd ed. , 1987 .

[48]  P. Giddings,et al.  When and where I enter : the impact of Black women on race and sex in America , 1985 .

[49]  R. Nash,et al.  The American Environment: Readings in the History of Conservation , 1976 .

[50]  F. Buttel,et al.  The Structure of Support for the Environmental Movement, 1968-1970. , 1974 .

[51]  W. F. Badé.  The life and letters of John Muir , 1924 .

[52]  H. D. Thoreau.  The Maine Woods , 1975 .

[53]  J. Rousseau.  Julie ou la Nouvelle Héloïse , 1962 .

[54]  R. Gale,et al.  The Environmental Movement , 1971 .

[55]  A. Szász.  Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice , 1995 .

[56]  G. W. Canfield.  Sarah Winnemucca of the Northern Paiutes , 1984 .

[57]  James M. Jasper,et al.  Losing Ground: American Environmentalism at the Close of the Twentieth Century , 1995 .

[58]  Sheldon Ekland-Olson,et al.  Social Networks and Social Movements: A Microstructural Approach to Differential Recruitment , 1980 .

[59]  Conservation: An Upper-middle Class Social Movement: A Replication , 1970 .

[60]  W. Tuttle,et al.  Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. , 1972 .

[61]  Doug McAdam,et al.  Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism , 1993, American Journal of Sociology.

[62]  M. Rokeach.  The Nature Of Human Values , 1974 .

[63]  J. Muir.  The Story of My Boyhood and Youth , 1913 .

[64]  S. Drake,et al.  Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City , 1945 .

[65]  John C. Campbell,et al.  Injustice: The Social Bases of Obedience and Revolt , 1979 .

[66]  E. Travers.  Ideology and Political Participation among High School Students , 1982 .

[67]  Robert D. Benford,et al.  Master-frames and cycles of protest , 1992 .

[68]  William A. Gamson,et al.  The social psychology of collective action. , 1992 .

[69]  R. L. Curtis,et al.  Stable Resources of Protest Movements: The Multi-Organizational Field , 1973 .

[70]  John C. Hendee,et al.  Conservation: An Upper-middle Class Social Movement , 1969 .

[71]  B. Klandermans.  NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND RESOURCE MOBILIZATION: THE EUROPEAN AND THE AMERICAN APPROACH* , 1986 .

[72]  N. Nie,et al.  Participation in America : Political Democracy and Social Equality , 1972 .

[73]  Robert D. Bullard,et al.  Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality. , 1991 .

[74]  Charles D. Bolton.  Alienation and Action: A Study of Peace-Group Members , 1972, American Journal of Sociology.

[75]  J. Hannigan,et al.  Environmental Sociology: A Social Constructionist Perspective , 1995 .

[76]  Edward J. Walsh,et al.  Social Movement Involvement in the Wake of a Nuclear Accident: Activists and Free Riders in the TMI Area , 1983 .

[77]  L. Milbrath,et al.  Environmentalists: Vanguard for a New Society , 1985 .

[78]  Rayna Green.  Native American Women , 1980, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society.

[79]  J. S. Larson,et al.  An American Crusade for Wildlife , 1975 .

[80]  S. Tarrow.  Modular Collective Action and the Rise of the Social Movement: Why the French Revolution was Not Enough , 1993 .

[81]  John I. Kitsuse,et al.  Social Problems: A Re-Formulation , 1973 .

[82]  R. Wolters.  Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. By Doug McAdam. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. viii + 304 pp. Map, charts, tables, appendixes, notes, bibliography, and index. $25.00.) , 1983 .

[83]  B. Bernstein.  Theoretical Studies Towards a Sociology of Language , 1972 .

[84]  Jack P. Gibbs,et al.  Norms, Deviance, and Social Control: Conceptual Matters , 1981 .

[85]  R. Dunlap,et al.  The “New Environmental Paradigm” , 1978 .

[86]  D. Aberle,et al.  The Peyote Religion Among the Navaho , 1967 .

[87]  Peter K. Eisinger,et al.  The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities , 1973, American Political Science Review.

[88]  A. H. Halsey,et al.  Power and ideology in education , 1977 .

[89]  P. Pollock,et al.  Who bears the burdens of environmental pollution? Race, ethnicity, and environmental equity in Florida , 1995 .

[90]  George J. McCall,et al.  Identities and interactions , 1966 .

[91]  Doug McAdam,et al.  Collective identity and activism: Networks, choices, and the life of a social movement. , 1992 .

[92]  S. Stryker.  Identity Salience and Role Performance: The Relevance of Symbolic Interaction Theory for Family Research , 1968 .

[93]  W. Gamson,et al.  Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Framing political opportunity , 1996 .

[94]  Mayer N. Zald,et al.  Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Culture, ideology, and strategic framing , 1996 .

[95]  William Kornhauser,et al.  The Politics of Mass Society. , 1959 .

[96]  Media discourse, movement publicity and the generation of collective action frames: theoretical and empirical exercises in meaning construction , 1996 .

[97]  G. Hardin.  Commentary: Living on a Lifeboat , 1974 .

[98]  N. Rafter.  Claims-Making and Socio-Cultural Context in the First U.S. Eugenics Campaign , 1992 .

[99]  J. Rotter.  Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. , 1966, Psychological monographs.

[100]  A. Orum.  On Participation in Political Protest Movements , 1974 .

[101]  J. Craig Jenkins,et al.  Stirring the Masses: Indigenous Roots of the Civil Rights Movement@@@The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change. , 1986 .

[102]  B. Commoner,et al.  Fear at work: Job blackmail, labor, and the environment , 1982 .

[103]  M. Rosenberg.  Conceiving the self , 1979 .

[104]  Ronnelle Paulsen.  Education, Social Class, and Participation in Collective Action , 1991 .

[105]  Robert D. Bullard,et al.  Dumping In Dixie: Race, Class, And Environmental Quality, Third Edition , 1994 .

[106]  Muzafer Sherif,et al.  Attitude and Attitude Change: The Social Judgment-Involvement Approach , 1982 .

[107]  C. Tilly.  From mobilization to revolution , 1978 .

[108]  J. Lodge.  Incinerating hazardous wastes , 1989 .

[109]  J. Seager.  Earth Follies: Coming to Feminist Terms with the Global Environmental Crisis // Review , 1993 .

[110]  Doug McAdam.  Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer , 1986, American Journal of Sociology.

[111]  R. Inglehart.  Public Support for Environmental Protection: Objective Problems and Subjective Values in 43 Societies , 1995, PS: Political Science & Politics.

[112]  N. Smelser.  Theory Of Collective Behavior , 1963 .

[113]  S. Cotgrove.  Catastrophe or cornucopia: The environment, politics, and the future , 1982 .

[114]  A. Szász,et al.  Environmental Inequalities: Literature Review and Proposals for New Directions in Research and Theory , 1997 .

[115]  C. Mcphail,et al.  Civil disorder participation: a critical examination of recent research. , 1971, American sociological review.

[116]  Edward J. Calabrese,et al.  Hazardous Waste Facilities , 1994 .

[117]  T. Parsons.  The Social System , 1953 .

[118]  George Boas,et al.  Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity , 1936 .

[119]  Andy B. Anderson,et al.  Environmental equity: Evaluating TSDF siting over the past two decades , 1994 .

[120]  John Cowley,et al.  Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail , 1978 .

[121]  E. Genovese.  Roll, Jordan, roll : the world the slaves made , 1975 .

[122]  A. Bramwell.  Ecology in the 20th Century: A History , 1989 .

[123]  Samuel Henry Barnes,et al.  Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies , 1979 .

[124]  J. D. McCarthy,et al.  Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory , 1977, American Journal of Sociology.

[125]  F. K. Cylke,et al.  Social Movements: Perspectives and Issues , 1996 .

[126]  Doug McAdam,et al.  Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Conceptual origins, current problems, future direction , 1996 .

[127]  Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: The impact of national contexts on social movement structures: A cross-movement and cross-national comparison , 1996 .

[128]  A. Paton.  WAYS WITH WORDS , 1995 .

[129]  Arthur H. Miller,et al.  Type-Set Politics: Impact of Newspapers on Public Confidence * , 1979 .

[130]  A. Lovejoy.  Essays In The History Of Ideas , 1949 .

[131]  Robert D. Bullard,et al.  Confronting environmental racism : voices from the grassroots , 1994 .

[132]  William J. McEwen,et al.  Organizational Goals and Environment: Goal-Setting as an Interaction Process , 1958 .

[133]  J. Kirk,et al.  The Organizational Substructure of Disorderly Politics , 1971 .

[134]  T. L. Mottl.  The Analysis of Countermovements , 1980 .

[135]  Paul Mohai,et al.  Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards , 1992 .

[136]  S. Finkel.  Reciprocal Effects of Participation and Political Efficacy: A Panel Analysis , 1985 .

[137]  J. Best.  Rhetoric in Claims-Making: Constructing the Missing Children Problem , 1987 .

[138]  R. Brewer.  Theorizing Race, Class and Gender: The New Scholarship of Black Feminist Intellectuals and Black Women’s Labor , 1993 .

[139]  S. Čapek,et al.  The “Environmental Justice” Frame: A Conceptual Discussion and an Application , 1993 .

[140]  T. Kuhn,et al.  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. , 1964 .

[141]  P. Mohai.  Environmental justice or analytic justice ? Reexamining historical hazardous waste landfill siting patterns in metropolitan Texas , 1996 .

[142]  D. Mcadam.  Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 , 1982 .

[143]  Michel Gelobter,et al.  Toxic Struggles: The Theory and Practice of Environmental Justice , 2002 .

[144]  Black students in protest: a study of the origins of the Black student movement , 1974 .

[145]  Haime Jules,et al.  Report made under authority of the legislature of Vermont, on the artificial propagation of fish, by George P. Marsh. , 1857 .

[146]  Arthur G. Neal,et al.  Organizations and Powerlessness: A Test of the Mediation Hypothesis , 1964 .

[147]  G. Hardin.  Living on a lifeboat. , 1974, Bioscience.

[148]  S. Craig,et al.  Efficacy, Trust, and Political Behavior , 1979 .

[149]  Ann Swidler.  CULTURE IN ACTION: SYMBOLS AND STRATEGIES* , 1986 .

[150]  J. Hickey,et al.  The American conservation movement : John Muir and his legacy , 1988 .

[151]  Environmentalism and the future of progressive politics , 1989 .

[152]  Gifford Pinchot,et al.  Breaking New Ground , 1972 .

[153]  Naomi Rosenthal,et al.  Social Movements and Network Analysis: A Case Study of Nineteenth-Century Women's Reform in New York State , 1985, American Journal of Sociology.

[154]  A. Leopold.  The Wilderness and Its Place in Forest Recreational Policy , 1921 .

[155]  Vicki Been,et al.  Locally Undesirable Land Uses in Minority Neighborhoods: Disproportionate Siting or Market Dynamics? , 1994 .

[156]  J. Muir,et al.  My first summer in the Sierra , 1911 .

[157]  B. Fireman,et al.  Encounters with unjust authority , 1982 .

[158]  W. Fisher.  Narration As a Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of Public Moral Argument , 1984 .

[159]  Dirk Oegema,et al.  POTENTIALS, NETWORKS, MOTIVATIONS, AND BARRIERS: STEPS TOWARDS PARTICIPATION IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS * , 1987 .

[160]  F. Graham,et al.  The Audubon Ark: A History of the National Audubon Society , 1990 .

[161]  P. Ehrlich.  The Population Bomb. , 1962, Canadian Medical Association journal.

[162]  R. Zajonc.  Feeling and thinking : Preferences need no inferences , 1980 .

[163]  Susan George,et al.  The Debt Boomerang: How Third World Debt Harms Us All , 1992 .