Encoding fluency is a cue used for judgments about learning.

The authors used paired-associate learning to investigate the hypothesis that the speed of generating an interactive image (encoding fluency) influenced 2 metacognitive judgments: judgments of learning (JOLs) and quality of encoding ratings (QUEs). Results from Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that latency of a keypress indicating successful image formation was negatively related to both JOLs and QUEs even though latency was unrelated to recall. Experiment 3 demonstrated that when concrete and abstract items were mixed in a single list, latency was related to concreteness, judgments, and recall. However, item concreteness and fluency influenced judgments independently of one another. These outcomes suggest an important role of encoding fluency in the formation of metacognitive judgments about learning and future recall.

[1]  J. Richardson.  The availability and effectiveness of reported mediators in associative learning: A historical review and an experimental investigation , 1998 .

[2]  T. O. Nelson,et al.  A comparison of current measures of the accuracy of feeling-of-knowing predictions , 1984 .

[3]  A. Koriat.  Monitoring one's own knowledge during study : A cue-utilization approach to judgments of learning , 1997 .

[4]  J. Dunlosky,et al.  Fluency of retrieval at study affects judgments of learning (JOLs): An analytic or nonanalytic basis for JOLs? , 2001, Memory & cognition.

[5]  T. O. Nelson.  Consciousness and metacognition. , 1996 .

[6]  Daniel L. Schacter,et al.  Memory, brain, and belief , 2001 .

[7]  E. Lovelace.  Metamemory: Monitoring Future Recallability During Study , 1984 .

[8]  John Dunlosky,et al.  Aging and monitoring associative learning: is monitoring accuracy spared or impaired? , 2002 .

[9]  T. O. Nelson.  Metamemory: A Theoretical Framework and New Findings , 1990 .

[10]  Edward G. Carmines,et al.  Measurement in the social sciences , 1980 .

[11]  L D Williams,et al.  The source of feelings of familiarity: the discrepancy-attribution hypothesis. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[12]  T. O. Nelson,et al.  Judgments of learning are affected by the kind of encoding in ways that cannot be attributed to the level of recall. , 1995, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[13]  John Dunlosky,et al.  Empirical analysis of the intrinsic–extrinsic distinction of judgments of learning (JOLs): Effects of relatedness and serial position on JOLs. , 2001 .

[14]  C. A. Weaver,et al.  Enhanced metamemory at delays: why do judgments of learning improve over time? , 1997, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[15]  E. Bizzi,et al.  The Cognitive Neurosciences , 1996 .

[16]  John Dunlosky,et al.  Does the Sensitivity of Judgments of Learning (JOLs) to the Effects of Various Study Activities Depend on When the JOLs Occur , 1994 .

[17]  R. Bjork,et al.  The mismeasure of memory: when retrieval fluency is misleading as a metamnemonic index. , 1998, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[18]  J. Dunlosky,et al.  Measuring strategy production during associative learning: The relative utility of concurrent versus retrospective reports , 2001, Memory & cognition.

[19]  T. O. Nelson,et al.  Do different metamemory judgments tap the same underlying aspects of memory , 1990 .

[20]  Dana Quade,et al.  Nonparametric Partial Correlation , 1967 .

[21]  J. Dunlosky,et al.  Effects of aging on the magnitude and accuracy of quality-of-encoding judgments. , 2003, American Journal of Psychology.

[22]  John Dunlosky,et al.  Toward a general model of self-regulated study: An analysis of selection of items for study and self-paced study time. , 1999 .

[23]  J. Davis.  A Partial Coefficient for Goodman and Kruskal's Gamma , 1967 .

[24]  Marcia K. Johnson,et al.  Cognitive and brain mechanisms of false memories and beliefs. , 2000 .

[25]  Ian Begg,et al.  Memory predictions are based on ease of processing , 1989 .

[26]  E. Clark,et al.  Is perceptual salience needed in explanations of the isolation effect? , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[27]  Cesare Cornoldi,et al.  Strategies in study time allocation: Why is study time sometimes not effective? , 1993 .

[28]  J. Dunlosky,et al.  Aging and deficits in associative memory: what is the role of strategy production? , 1998, Psychology and aging.

[29]  J. Yuille,et al.  A detailed examination of mediation in PA learning , 1973, Memory & cognition.

[30]  Amy Wohl,et al.  Apple computer, Inc. , 2003 .

[31]  Larry L. Jacoby,et al.  Subjective reports and process dissociation: Fluency, knowing, and feeling , 1998 .

[32]  Hubert M. Blalock,et al.  Measurement in the Social Sciences , 1974 .

[33]  G. Bower.  Imagery as a relational organizer in associative learning , 1970 .

[34]  D. S. Lindsay,et al.  Remembering Mistaken for Knowing: Ease of Retrieval as a Basis for Confidence in Answers to General Knowledge Questions , 1993 .

[35]  T. O. Nelson,et al.  When People's Judgments of Learning (JOLs) are Extremely Accurate at Predicting Subsequent Recall: The “Delayed-JOL Effect” , 1991 .

[36]  K. Nelson,et al.  The syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift revisited: a review of research and theory. , 1977, Psychological bulletin.

[37]  F. Craik,et al.  Aging and metamemory: the roles of relatedness and imagery. , 1982, Journal of gerontology.

[38]  Allan Paivio.  Imagery and memory. , 1995 .

[39]  Allan Paivio,et al.  Latency of imaginal and verbal mediators as a function of stimulus and response concreteness-imagery , 1967 .