Mechanistic-empirical permanent deformation models: Laboratory testing, modelling and ranking

Abstract Geomaterials exhibit elastoplastic behaviour during dynamic and repeated loading conditions. These loads are induced by the passage of a train or vehicle which then generates recoverable (resilient) deformation and/or permanent (plastic) deformation. Modelling this behaviour is still a challenge for geotechnical engineers as it implies the understanding of the complex deformation mechanism and application of advanced constitutive models. This paper reviews on the major causes of permanent deformation and the factors that influence the long-term performance of materials. It will also present the fundamental concepts of permanent deformation as well as the models and approaches used to characterise this behaviour, including: elastoplastic models, shakedown theory and mechanistic-empirical permanent deformation models. This paper will focus on the mechanistic-empirical approach and highlight the evolution of the models, and the main similarities and differences between them. A comparison between several empirical models as well as the materials used to develop the models is also discussed. These materials are compared by considering the reference conditions on the type of material and its physical state. This approach allows for an understanding of which properties can influence the performance of railway subgrade and pavement structures, as well as the main variables used to characterise this particular behaviour. An innovative ranking of geomaterials that relate to the expected permanent deformation and classification (UIC and ASTM) of soil is also discussed because it can be used as an important tool for the design process.

[1]  J W Pappin.  Characteristics of a granular material for pavement analysis , 1979 .

[2]  Shafiqur Rahman,et al.  Characteristic of unbound granular materials and subgrades based on multi stage RLT testing , 2017 .

[5]  Erol Tutumluer,et al.  Implementation framework of the UIUC aggregate base rutting model , 2019 .

[6]  Buddhima Indraratna,et al.  Deformation of Coal Fouled Ballast Stabilized with Geogrid under Cyclic Load , 2013 .

[7]  Per Ullidtz,et al.  MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE UNDER MOVING WHEEL LOAD , 1993 .

[8]  Shu-Rong Yang,et al.  Permanent Deformation and Critical Stress of Cohesive Soil under Repeated Loading , 2007 .

[9]  Cyrille Chazallon,et al.  ELASTOPLASTICITY FRAMEWORK FOR INCREMENTAL OR SIMPLIFIED METHODS FOR UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS FOR ROADS , 2002 .

[10]  S. F. Brown,et al.  SIGNIFICANCE OF CYCLIC CONFINING STRESS IN REPEATED-LOAD TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR MATERIAL , 1975 .

[11]  Jacob Uzan.  Permanent Deformation of a Granular Base Material , 1999 .

[12]  Andrew Dawson,et al.  Permanent Deformation Behaviour of Granular Materials , 2005 .

[13]  R D Barksdale,et al.  LABORATORY EVALUATION OF RUTTING IN BASE COURSE MATERIALS , 1972 .

[14]  Fredrick Lekarp.  Resilient and permanent deformation behavior of unbound aggregates under repeated loading , 1999 .

[15]  Robert L. Lytton,et al.  DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR ASPHALT BINDERS AND PAVING MIXES , 1993 .

[16]  X. Gu,et al.  Dynamic shakedown limits for flexible pavement with cross-anisotropic materials , 2018, Road Materials and Pavement Design.

[17]  M. Huurman.  Permanent deformation in concrete block pavements , 1997 .

[18]  C R Freeme,et al.  PERMANENT DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBGRADE SOILS DUE TO REPEATED LOADING , 1975 .

[19]  A. Correia,et al.  A macro geomechanical approach to rank non-standard unbound granular materials for pavements , 2011 .

[20]  Patrick de Buhan,et al.  A computational procedure for predicting the long term residual settlement of a platform induced by repeated traffic loading , 2003 .

[21]  P. Alves Costa,et al.  Soil shakedown analysis of slab railway tracks: Numerical approach and parametric study , 2018, Transportation Geotechnics.

[22]  Safwan A. Khedr.  DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF GRANULAR BASE COURSE IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS , 1985 .

[23]  Sigurdur Erlingsson,et al.  Evaluation of Permanent Deformation Characteristics of Unbound Granular Materials by Means of Multistage Repeated-Load Triaxial Tests , 2013 .

[24]  Jinchun Chai,et al.  Traffic-Load-Induced Permanent Deformation of Road on Soft Subsoil , 2002 .

[25]  P Jouve,et al.  RATIONAL MODEL FOR THE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS DEFORMATIONS. SIXTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE, STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS, VOLUME I, PROCEEDINGS, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, JULY 13-17, 1987, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN , 1987 .

[26]  Dingqing Li,et al.  Cumulative plastic deformation for fine-grained subgrade soils , 1996 .

[27]  Alain Denis,et al.  A new approach for investigating the permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular material using the repeated loading triaxial apparatus , 2001 .

[28]  Gilles Foret,et al.  Experimental settlement and dynamic behavior of a portion of ballasted railway track under high speed trains , 2008 .

[29]  G. Sweere.  UNBOUND GRANULAR BASES FOR ROADS. , 1990 .

[30]  Yunmin Chen,et al.  Full-scale model testing on a ballastless high-speed railway under simulated train moving loads , 2014 .

[31]  Charles R. Marek,et al.  Implication of Aggregates in the Design, Construction, and Performance of Flexible Pavements , 1989 .

[33]  Alex T. Visser,et al.  Incorporating elasto-plasticity in granular layer pavement design , 1994 .

[34]  I. Collins,et al.  Geomechanical Analysis of Unbound Pavements Based on Shakedown Theory , 2000 .

[35]  P. Hornych,et al.  Elastoplastic Model for the Long-Term Behavior Modeling of Unbound Granular Materials in Flexible Pavements , 2006 .

[36]  John P Zaniewski,et al.  Sampling-Based Sensitivity Analysis of the Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guide Applied to Material Inputs , 2011 .

[37]  B. Indraratna,et al.  Effect of increase in load and frequency on the resilience of railway ballast , 2019, Géotechnique.

[38]  Yunmin Chen,et al.  Cumulative settlement of track subgrade in high-speed railway under varying water levels , 2014 .

[39]  F. Lekarp,et al.  PERMANENT DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS , 1997 .

[40]  F. Zhang,et al.  Permanent Deformation Characteristics of Coarse Grained Subgrade Soils under Train-Induced Repeated Load , 2017 .

[41]  Robert L. Lytton,et al.  Prediction of Permanent Deformation in Flexible Pavement Materials , 1989 .

[42]  Muhammad Babar Sajjad,et al.  Improved performance of ballasted tracks at transition zones: A review of experimental and modelling approaches , 2019, Transportation Geotechnics.

[43]  Pierre Hornych,et al.  Modelling of rutting of two flexible pavements with the shakedown theory and the finite element method , 2009 .

[44]  Rong Luo,et al.  Development of a New Mechanistic Empirical Rutting Model for Unbound Granular Material , 2016 .

[45]  Hai-Sui Yu,et al.  Validation experiments for lower-bound shakedown theory applied to layered pavement systems , 2012 .

[46]  A. Gomes Correia,et al.  Innovations in design and construction of granular pavements and railways , 2008 .

[47]  윤태영,et al.  Transportation Research Board of the National Academies , 2015 .

[48]  I. Hoff,et al.  Finite element modelling for prediction of permanent strains in fine-grained subgrade soils , 2015 .

[49]  Shu-Rong Yang,et al.  Correlation between Resilient Modulus and Plastic Deformation for Cohesive Subgrade Soil under Repeated Loading , 2008 .

[50]  A. Correia.  Evaluation of mechanical properties of unbound granular materials for pavements and rail tracks , 2004 .

[52]  Pierre Hornych,et al.  Finite elements modelling of the long‐term behaviour of a full‐scale flexible pavement with the shakedown theory , 2009 .

[53]  Erol Tutumluer,et al.  Framework for Development of an Improved Unbound Aggregate Base Rutting Model for Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design , 2014 .

[54]  Adrian F. L. Hyde.  Repeated load triaxial testing of soils , 1974 .

[55]  Hai-Sui Yu,et al.  Residual stresses and shakedown in cohesive-frictional half-space under moving surface loads , 2013 .

[56]  C. Chazallon,et al.  A two‐mechanism elastoplastic model for shakedown of unbound granular materials and DEM simulations , 2012 .

[57]  Ulf Isacsson,et al.  STATE OF THE ART. II: PERMANENT STRAIN RESPONSE OF UNBOUND AGGREGATES , 2000 .

[58]  L. Korkiala-Tanttu.  A new material model for permanent deformations in pavements , 2005 .

[59]  Juan Wang,et al.  The influence of traffic moving speed on shakedown limits of flexible pavements , 2019 .

[60]  Louay N. Mohammad,et al.  Permanent Deformation Characterization of Subgrade Soils from RLT Test , 1999 .

[61]  龍岡 文夫,et al.  DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF RAILWAY ROADBED AND SUBGRADE UNDER MOVING-WHEEL LOAD , 2005 .

[62]  Sigurdur Erlingsson,et al.  Predicting permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials , 2015 .

[63]  Sigurdur Erlingsson,et al.  A model for predicting permanent deformation of unbound granular materials , 2015 .

[64]  Xing Wei,et al.  Prediction of Traffic Loading–Induced Settlement of Low-Embankment Road on Soft Subsoil , 2017 .

[65]  Sireesh Saride,et al.  Experimental and Modeling Studies of Permanent Strains of Subgrade Soils , 2009 .

[66]  Pierre Hornych,et al.  COMPORTEMENT MECANIQUE DES GRAVES NON TRAITEES , 1994 .

[67]  Fredrick Lekarp,et al.  Modelling permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials , 1998 .

[68]  António Gomes Correia,et al.  Mechanical behavior of natural and recycled granular materials for roads , 2011 .

[69]  Kai Wei,et al.  Effects of Principal Stress Rotation on the Cumulative Deformation of Normally Consolidated Soft Clay under Subway Traffic Loading , 2014 .

[70]  Shiyuan Li,et al.  A unified model for estimating the permanent deformation of sand under a large number of cyclic loads , 2019, Ocean Engineering.

[71]  Chandrakant S. Desai,et al.  A general basis for yield, failure and potential functions in plasticity , 1980 .