Social, Organizational, and Technological Conditions that enable Knowledge Sharing

ion The second step builds on the first step. The key issues from the descriptive empirical model are abstracted into a descriptive conceptual model. Theory formulation This descriptive conceptual model forms the foundation for a prescriptive conceptual model. This model comprises the theory with which the research problem may be solved. Implementation The theory from the prescriptive conceptual model is implemented. A prescriptive empirical model is constructed to test and validate the theory. Evaluation This final step evaluates the prescriptive empirical model(s). Additional requirements for improving the prescriptive conceptual model may result, which can serve as an initial theory in another inductive-hypothetical model cycle. Figure 2.1: Inductive-hypothetical model cycle 2.3.3 Research instruments Our research strategy outlined the method to accomplish the research goal. This section discusses the tools — the research instruments — necessary to implement that strategy. Some of the most used research instruments are (Vreede, 1995; Baskerville, 2000): 16 Social, Organizational, and Technological Conditions that enable Knowledge Sharing Laboratory experiment The investigation of relations between controlled variables with minimum variations solving an artificial problem. Field experiment This is an experiment with a small number of uncontrolled variables that deals with a practical problem. Case study A case study is a planned and focused study of a phenomenon in its natural setting with a large number of variables (with only little or no control). Action research Action research is a study of relationships in the real world where the researcher is actively involved and has influence on the outcome of the study. Survey This is an investigation of a real-world situation at a particular point in time, usually utilizing a statistically analyzed questionnaire. Theorem proof Hypotheses are constructed using mathematical modeling based on a known set of derivation rules. Simulation, role-playing, and gaming Behavior is studied in a model of the real world with a limited set of controlled variables. Forecasting Extrapolation methods are used in order to deduce scenarios for the future. Our research approach follows the interpretive philosophy and applies an inductivehypothetical model cycle as its research strategy. The research instruments are chosen within this framework and they are selected to accomplish the research goal. Theory is traditionally created by combining observations from previous literature, common sense, and experience (Eisenhardt, 1989). However, when there is not much known about a research problem or when the problem area undergoes constant change another perspective is needed. Because case studies do not rely on previous literature or prior empirical evidence it is argued that it is appropriate to use case study research in these situations — for capturing the knowledge of practitioners and developing theories from it (Benbasat et al., 1987; Eisenhardt, 1989). Therefore we choose case study research (a qualitative data source) as our research instrument. Eisenhardt (1989) states: “The disadvantage of the case study as a research strategy is that investigators leap to conclusions based on limited data, or they sometimes inadvertently drop disconfirming evidence. The danger is that investigators reach premature and even false conclusions as a result of these information-processing biases. Thus, the key to good cross-case comparison is counteracting these tendencies by looking at the data in many divergent ways.” In order to avoid these disadvantages and to increase the ‘scientific rigor’ and applicability of our research we apply the following criteria of case study research (Voyer et al., 1996): Internal validity Internal validity stands for the credibility of the research. This research uses various qualitative data sources (interviews, observation) and employs research teams (peers from the author) for reviewing the produced material. Research Framework 17 External validity External validity means generalizability or transferability of the findings. This criterion is often not met in single case studies. Recommended is to research multiple cases. In this dissertation five cases of the ‘real world’ (with four quite different organizations as sites) have been selected to strengthen the generalizability of the study’s results. Construct validity Construct validity regards the consistency and reliability of the research. The construct validity in this study is achieved through creating and contrasting multiple sources of evidence: literature, documents, archival records, direct observation, participant observation, and interviews. Neutrality Neutrality implies objective and confirmable research data. Subjective interpretations — the researcher’s bias — of collected data are reduced by using various data sources and by applying the broad experience of the researcher with respect to interview techniques. Discussions in the research teams combined the subjective interpretations of their members to obtain a more objective view. A case study research consists of the phases design and planning, collection, observation and analysis, and report (Eisenhardt, 1989). First the cases are selected using the following criteria: • there is a growing need in the organization for connectivity and the synergy of information and knowledge; • the organization perceives knowledge sharing as important; • the sites are different enough by type, characteristics, and business processes to meet the criteria of external validity; • it should be possible to gather the necessary data at the site and to become familiar with the characteristics of the situation. Based on their need for connectivity of people and information systems and on basis of their perceived want for synergy of information and knowledge, we select the following case studies: Getronics Consulting Getronics Consulting is a consultancy firm located in the Netherlands, a member of the multinational Getronics Group, which specializes in issues related to organization and information & communication technology. Royal Netherlands Air Force Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) forms part of the Ministry of Defense of the Netherlands. The Royal Netherlands Air Force is responsible for delivering Dutch air power wherever needed. Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning, and the Environment The Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning, and the Environment of the Netherlands is responsible for coordinating environmental policy at government level to realize ‘a permanent quality of the living environment’. Unilever Research & Development Vlaardingen Unilever Research & Development Vlaardingen is part of one of the principal companies in the world in the field of consumer goods for daily use, such as foods and products for home and personal care. The next step is determining the data collection methods. Data collection at multiple cases with distinct characteristics should enable cross-case analysis and the extension of theory 18 Social, Organizational, and Technological Conditions that enable Knowledge Sharing (Benbasat et al., 1987). Our data collection is based on observations and participation at the sites as a long-term employee (about ten years) of this consultancy firm, as a project member (during a period of two and a half years) to implement a standardized information and communication technology infrastructure at Headquarters and all operational bases of the Royal Netherlands Air Force, and through conducting in-depth interviews at the Ministry and at Unilever Research & Development Vlaardingen. We also employ qualitative data sources such as literature, documents, reports, business process descriptions, archives, own observations, and other interviews to obtain a rich image of the circumstances related to knowledge sharing. The data collected from the data sources is analyzed and compared on similarities, contradictions, and relations. 2.4 Research outline As the first step in applying the inductive-hypothetical model cycle (as depicted in Figure 2.1 on page 15) in our research, we explore in Chapter 3 theoretical issues related to knowledge and knowledge sharing within an organization. Based on the knowledge creation theory of Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) we define and discuss the processes involved in knowledge sharing in an organization. The model of Orlikowski (1992) — which treats the influences of and (often reciprocal) interactions between people, organization, and technology — is used to detail these knowledge sharing processes. Figure 2.2: Research outline Research Framework 19 In Chapter 4 this exploration forms the basis for the data collection, reflection, and analysis of two of the case studies which results in the descriptive empirical model: a matrix in which the knowledge sharing processes are related to the factors people, organization, and technology by means of describing conditions that may facilitate knowledge sharing. The most significant issues of this model are abstracted to construct the descriptive conceptual model that is described in Chapter 5: this identifies the conditions and enablers for knowledge sharing, which are structured into social, organizational, and technological factors and related to the knowledge sharing processes. This model forms the foundation for the prescriptive conceptual model of Chapter 6. We use phases — that reflect a certain stage in the development of knowledge sharing in an organization — to refine our findings. We relate these different organizational phases to their most appropriate knowledge sharing conditions. In Chapter 7 we define a repeating process of assessment and action to validate whether the (stimulation of the) identified conditions enable(s) knowledge sharing. Chapter 8 implements our model in three case studies (two new cases and one revisited). In Chapter 9 we reflect on our prescriptive e