Radiofrequency Radiation Standards

Michael H. Repacholi Chairman, ICNlRP Australian Radiation Laboratory Victoria, Australia The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) was established in May 1992 by the International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA) as an independent scientific commission to provide advice and guidance on all aspects of protection from NIR exposure to workers, the general public and the environment. ICNlRP's predecessor, the International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee (lNIRC) of the IRP A had developed a substantial reputation in the field of NIR protection. Its procedures for the development of standards will be continued by the ICNlRP and are described here. Current areas of concern and future activities of ICNlRP on protection from radio frequency (RF) field exposure will also be summarized.

[1]  Biopsies of Hwan Testes Receiving Multiple Microwave Irradiation: An Histological and Ultramicroscopical Study , 1991 .

[2]  S. Cleary,et al.  Viability and phagocytosis of neutrophils exposed in vitro to 100-MHz radiofrequency radiation. , 1985, Bioelectromagnetics.

[3]  E. Adair,et al.  Operant control of convective cooling and microwave irradiation by the squirrel monkey. , 1985, Bioelectromagnetics.

[4]  W. R. Adey,et al.  Suppression of T-lymphocyte cytotoxicity following exposure to sinusoidally amplitude-modulated fields. , 1983, Bioelectromagnetics.

[5]  A B Cairnie,et al.  Dosimetry for a study of effects of 2.45-GHz microwaves on mouse testis. , 1980, Bioelectromagnetics.

[6]  R D Phillips,et al.  BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS OF PULSED MICROWAVE RADIATION * , 1975, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[7]  S. P. Spragg,et al.  Dielectric and Electronic Properties of Biological Materials , 1980 .

[8]  F. Shellock,et al.  Heating of the scrotum by high-field-strength MR imaging. , 1990, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[9]  W. G. Lotz,et al.  Metabolic and vasomotor responses of rhesus monkeys exposed to 225-MHz radiofrequency energy. , 1987, Bioelectromagnetics.

[10]  J. Sandweiss,et al.  On the cyclotron resonance model of ion transport. , 1990, Bioelectromagnetics.

[11]  Ethan R. Nadel,et al.  Problems with temperature regulation during exercise , 1977 .

[12]  E. Adair,et al.  Behavioral temperature regulation in the squirrel monkey: changes induced by shifts in hypothalamic temperature. , 1970, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[13]  D. McRee,et al.  Some behavioral effects of short-term exposure of rats to 2.45 GHz microwave radiation. , 1988, Bioelectromagnetics.

[14]  C. Gabriel,et al.  Microwave absorption in aqueous solutions of DNA , 1987, Nature.

[15]  W. Loob Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer , 1991 .

[16]  J. R. Thomas,et al.  Modification of the repeated acquisition of response sequences in rats by low-level microwave exposure. , 1980, Bioelectromagnetics.

[17]  W. R. Adey,et al.  Effects of weak amplitude-modulated microwave fields on calcium efflux from awake cat cerebral cortex. , 1982, Bioelectromagnetics.

[18]  M. Gage,et al.  Interaction of ambient temperature and microwave power density on schedule-controlled behavior in the rat , 1982 .

[19]  R. Liburdy Radiofrequency Radiation Alters the Immune System , 1980 .

[20]  L. H. Newburgh Physiology of heat regulation and the science of clothing. , 1951 .

[21]  Thomas R. Ward,et al.  The effect of microwave radiation (2450 MHz) on the morphology and chromosomes of lymphocytes , 1977 .

[22]  John O. de Lorge,et al.  Operant behavior and colonic temperature of Macaca mulatta exposed to radio frequency fields at and above resonant frequencies. , 1984 .

[23]  Stewart J. Allen,et al.  Skilled visual‐motor performance by monkeys in a 1.2‐GHz microwave field , 1979 .

[24]  W G Lotz,et al.  Temperature and adrenocortical responses in rhesus monkeys exposed to microwaves. , 1982, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[25]  J. Merritt,et al.  Thermal Responses to High-Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation Fields. , 1976 .

[26]  A. Guy,et al.  Ethanol-induced hypothermia and ethanol consumption in the rat are affected by low-level microwave irradiation. , 1984, Bioelectromagnetics.

[27]  William D. Hurt,et al.  Multiterm Debye Dispersion Relations for Permittivity of Muscle , 1985, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[28]  R. Phillips,et al.  Thermoregulatory, metabolic, and cardiovascular response of rats to microwaves. , 1975, Journal of applied physiology.

[29]  L. Rowell,et al.  Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. , 1974, Physiological reviews.

[30]  S. J. Webb,et al.  Resonance between 1011 and 1012 Hz in active bacterial cells as seen by laser Raman spectroscopy , 1977 .

[31]  Behavioral Suppression by 383-MHz Radiation (Short Papers) , 1975 .

[32]  F. Shellock,et al.  Exposure to a 1.5‐T static magnetic field does not alter body and skin temperatures in man , 1989, Magnetic resonance in medicine.

[33]  Eleanor R. Adair,et al.  Thermophysiological Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation , 1987, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine.

[34]  Stephen D. Smith,et al.  Ca 2+-45 Cyclotron Resonance in Human Lymphocytes , 1987 .

[35]  W. Pickard,et al.  The insensitivity of frog heart rate to pulse modulated microwave energy. , 1976, The Journal of microwave power.

[36]  R. F. Brown,et al.  Differentiation of murine erythroleukemic cells during exposure to microwave radiation. , 1986, Radiation research.

[37]  R. Olsen RF Energy for Warming Divers’ Hands and Feet , 1990 .

[38]  C. J. Gordon,et al.  Comparative thermoregulatory response to passive heat loading by exposure to radiofrequency radiation. , 1987, Comparative biochemistry and physiology. A, Comparative physiology.

[39]  J. D. Lorge Operant behavior and rectal temperature of squirrel monkeys during 2.45‐GHz microwave irradiation , 1979 .

[40]  John R. Thomas,et al.  Microwave radiation and dextroamphetamine: Evidence of combined effects on behavior of rats , 1979 .

[41]  R. Olsen,et al.  Radiofrequency energy for rewarming of cold extremities. , 1992, Undersea biomedical research.

[42]  O. Gandhi,et al.  An Investigation of the Thermal and Athermal Effects of Microwave Irradiation on Erythrocytes , 1979, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[43]  John B. Shoven,et al.  I , Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.

[44]  E. Adair,et al.  Minimal changes in hypothalamic temperature accompany microwave-induced alteration of thermoregulatory behavior. , 1984, Bioelectromagnetics.

[45]  J. T. Stitt Fever versus hyperthermia. , 1979, Federation proceedings.

[46]  MICROWAVE DOSE‐RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS ON TWO BEHAVIORAL TASKS , 1975, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[47]  E. Adair,et al.  Thermoregulatory consequences of long-term microwave exposure at controlled ambient temperatures. , 1984, Bioelectromagnetics.

[48]  J. Krupp Thermal Response in 'Macaca mulatta' Exposed to 15- and 20-MHz Radiofrequency Radiation. , 1977 .

[49]  M. S. Cooper,et al.  The absence of coherent vibrations in the Raman spectra of living cells , 1983 .

[50]  Absence of Heart-Rate Effects in Rabbits During Low-Level Microwave Irradiation , 1971 .

[51]  James C. Lin,et al.  Thermographic and Behavioral Studies of Rats in the Near Field of 918-MHz Radiations , 1977 .

[52]  R. Tell,et al.  A review of selected biological effects and dosimetric data useful for development of radiofrequency safety standards for human exposure. , 1979, The Journal of microwave power.

[53]  C. Davis,et al.  An optical method for investigating the microwave absorption characteristics of DNA and other biomolecules in solution. , 1983, Bioelectromagnetics.

[54]  Population exposure to VHF and UHF broadcast radiation in the United States , 1982 .

[55]  E. Albert,et al.  Effect of amplitude-modulated 147 MHz radiofrequency radiation on calcium ion efflux from avian brain tissue. , 1987, Radiation research.

[56]  E. C. Burdette,et al.  In Vivo Probe Measurement Technique for Determining Dielectric Properties at VHF through Microwave Frequencies , 1980 .

[57]  Energy Exchanges During Exercise , 1977 .

[58]  R. Olsen,et al.  Radio frequency (13.56 MHz) energy enhances recovery from mild hypothermia. , 1989, Journal of applied physiology.

[59]  S. J. WEBB,et al.  Inhibition of Bacterial Cell Growth by 136 gc Microwaves , 1968, Nature.

[60]  J. H. Merritt,et al.  Attempts to alter 45Ca2+ binding to brain tissue with pulse-modulated microwave energy. , 1982, Bioelectromagnetics.

[61]  R. Smialowicz,et al.  Complement receptor positive spleen cells in microwave (2450-MHz)-irradiated mice. , 1981, The Journal of microwave power.

[62]  A. Guy,et al.  Effects of acute low-level microwaves on pentobarbital-induced hypothermia depend on exposure orientation. , 1984, Bioelectromagnetics.

[63]  A. Guy,et al.  Effects of pulsed microwave radiation on the contractile rate of isolated frog hearts. , 1986, The Journal of microwave power and electromagnetic energy : a publication of the International Microwave Power Institute.

[64]  D J Drost,et al.  Time-varying magnetic fields increase cytosolic free Ca2+ in HL-60 cells. , 1990, The American journal of physiology.

[65]  J. De Lorge Operant behavior and colonic temperature of Macaca mulatta exposed to radio frequency fields at and above resonant frequencies. , 1984, Bioelectromagnetics.

[66]  K. Foster,et al.  "Resonances" in the dielectric absorption of DNA? , 1987, Biophysical journal.

[67]  F. Shellock Thermal Responses in Human Subjects Exposed to Magnetic Resonance Imaging a , 1992, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[68]  E. Adair,et al.  Technical note: on changes in evaporative heat loss that result from exposure to nonionizing electromagnetic radiation. , 1983, The Journal of microwave power.

[69]  J. R. Lancaster Nitric Oxide in Cells , 1992 .

[70]  J. Elder,et al.  Induction of calcium-ion efflux from brain tissue by radio-frequency radiation: Effects of modulation frequency and field strength , 1979 .

[71]  C T Hanks,et al.  Search for cyclotron resonance in cells in vitro. , 1989, Bioelectromagnetics.

[72]  J. Marx The fos gene as "master switch". , 1987, Science.

[73]  J. H. Merritt,et al.  Thermal and physiological responses of rats exposed to 2.45-GHz radiofrequency radiation: A comparison of E and H orientation , 1989, Radiation and environmental biophysics.

[74]  O. Gandhi,et al.  Numerical Calculation of Electromagnetic Energy Deposition for a Realistic Model of Man , 1979 .

[75]  H. Fröhlich Evidence for Bose condensation-like excitation of coherent modes in biological systems , 1975 .

[76]  D. House,et al.  A role for the magnetic field in the radiation-induced efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro. , 1985, Bioelectromagnetics.

[77]  A. Guy,et al.  Influence of microwaves on the beating rate of isolated rat hearts. , 1988, Bioelectromagnetics.

[78]  O. Gandhi,et al.  Millimeter wave absorption spectra of biological samples. , 1980, Bioelectromagnetics.

[79]  A. Guy,et al.  Opioid receptor subtypes that mediate a microwave-induced decrease in central cholinergic activity in the rat. , 1992, Bioelectromagnetics.

[80]  H. Anisman,et al.  Acute exposure to pulsed microwaves affects neither pentylenetetrazol seizures in the rat nor chlordiazepoxide protection against such seizures. , 1983, Radiation research.

[81]  O. Gandhi,et al.  Currents induced in an anatomically based model of a human for exposure to vertically polarized electromagnetic pulses , 1991 .

[82]  E. Adair,et al.  Thermoregulatory consequences of cardiovascular impairment during NMR imaging in warm/humid environments. , 1989, Magnetic resonance imaging.

[83]  A. H. Frey,et al.  Pulse modulated UHF energy illumination of the heart associated with change in heart rate , 1968 .

[84]  Jr. W.M. Leach,et al.  Immune response of mice to 2450‐MHz microwave radiation: Overview of immunology and empirical studies of lymphoid splenic cells , 1977 .

[85]  Igor B. Mekjavic,et al.  Environmental ergonomics : sustaining human performance in harsh environments , 1988 .

[86]  S. T. Lu,et al.  Mitogen responsiveness after exposure of influenza virus-infected human mononuclear leukocytes to continuous or pulse-modulated radiofrequency radiation. , 1987, Radiation research.

[87]  P. Hamrick,et al.  Rat lymphocytes in cell culture exposed to 2450 MHz (CW) microwave radiation. , 1977, The Journal of microwave power.

[88]  D. McRee,et al.  Cardiovascular, hematologic, and biochemical effects of acute ventral exposure of conscious rats to 2450-MHz (CW) microwave radiation. , 1986, Bioelectromagnetics.

[89]  Y. Ashani,et al.  Combined effects of anticholinesterase drugs and low-level microwave radiation. , 1980, Radiation research.

[90]  J. E. Peterson Biologic Effects and Health Hazards of Microwave Radiation , 1975 .

[91]  E. Adair,et al.  Predicted Thermophysiological Responses of Humans to MRI Fields , 1992, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[92]  S. T. Lu,et al.  Human leukocyte functions and the U.S. safety standard for exposure to radio-frequency radiation. , 1983, Science.

[93]  W. G. Lotz,et al.  Temperature and corticosterone relationships in microwave-exposed rats. , 1978, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[94]  E. Grant The dielectric method of investigating bound water in biological material: an appraisal of the technique. , 1982, Bioelectromagnetics.

[95]  M. Browning,et al.  Microwave radiation, in the absence of hyperthermia, has no detectable effect on synapsin I levels or phosphorylation. , 1988, Neurotoxicology and Teratology.

[96]  R. Smialowicz,et al.  Assessment of immune function development in mice irradiated in utero with 2450-MHz microwaves. , 1982, The Journal of microwave power.

[97]  V. Lednev,et al.  Possible mechanism for the influence of weak magnetic fields on biological systems. , 1991, Bioelectromagnetics.

[98]  S. T. Lu,et al.  Effects of microwaves on three different strains of rats. , 1987, Radiation research.

[99]  C. Blackman,et al.  Radiofrequency radiation-induced calcium ion efflux enhancement from human and other neuroblastoma cells in culture. , 1989, Bioelectromagnetics.

[100]  D. House,et al.  The influence of temperature during electric- and magnetic-field-induced alteration of calcium-ion release from in vitro brain tissue. , 1991, Bioelectromagnetics.

[101]  R J Sheppard,et al.  Dielectric behaviour of biological molecules in solution , 1978 .

[102]  S. Lindquist The heat-shock response. , 1986, Annual review of biochemistry.

[103]  C. Gordon Normalizing the thermal effects of radiofrequency radiation: body mass versus total body surface area. , 1987, Bioelectromagnetics.

[104]  C. Cain,et al.  Absence of heart-rate effects in isolated frog heart irradiated with pulse modulated microwave energy. , 1975, The Journal of microwave power.

[105]  L. Birenbaum,et al.  Microwave and infra-red effects on heart rate, respiration rate and subcutaneous temperature of the rabbit. , 1975, The Journal of microwave power.

[106]  R. Lebovitz,et al.  Testicular function of rats following exposure to microwave radiation. , 1983, Bioelectromagnetics.

[107]  H. Ho,et al.  The effect of environmental temperature and average dose rate of microwave radiation on the oxygen-consumption rate of mice , 1979, Radiation and environmental biophysics.

[108]  R. Smialowicz,et al.  Microwaves (2,450 MHz) suppress murine natural killer cell activity. , 1983, Bioelectromagnetics.

[109]  J. D. Lorge The Thermal Basis for Disruption of Operant Behavior by Microwaves in Three Animal Species , 1982 .

[110]  Jr. W.M. Leach,et al.  Possible humoral mechanism of 2450-MHz microwave-induced increase in complement receptor positive cells. , 1981, Bioelectromagnetics.

[111]  G. Edwards,et al.  Microwave-field-driven acoustic modes in DNA. , 1985, Biophysical journal.

[112]  M. Nielsen,et al.  Die Regulation der Körpertemperatur bei Muskelarbeit1 , 1938 .

[113]  P. Greengard,et al.  Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation on Calcium in the Brain. , 1982 .

[114]  R. Lebovitz,et al.  Acute, whole-body microwave exposure and testicular function of rats. , 1987, Bioelectromagnetics.

[115]  R P Liburdy,et al.  Calcium signaling in lymphocytes and ELF fields Evidence for an electric field metric and a site of interaction involving the calcium ion channel , 1992, FEBS letters.

[116]  P. Czerski,et al.  Guidelines on limits of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 300 GHz. International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee of the International Radiation Protection Association. , 1988, Health physics.

[117]  J. L. Lords,et al.  Behavioral and thermal effects of microwave radiation at resonant and nonresonant wavelengths , 1977 .

[118]  A. Guy,et al.  Psychoactive-drug response is affected by acute low-level microwave irradiation. , 1983, Bioelectromagnetics.

[119]  J. De Lorge,et al.  Microwaves as reinforcing events in a cold environment. , 1988, Progress in clinical and biological research.

[120]  B. Saltin,et al.  Esophageal, rectal, and muscle temperature during exercise. , 1966, Journal of applied physiology.

[121]  M. F. Sultan,et al.  Effects of microwaves and hyperthermia on capping of antigen-antibody complexes on the surface of normal mouse B lymphocytes. , 1983, Bioelectromagnetics.

[122]  E. Adair,et al.  Microwaves modify thermoregulatory behavior in squirrel monkey. , 1980, Bioelectromagnetics.

[123]  R. Lebovitz Pulse modulated and continuous wave microwave radiation yield equivalent changes in operant behavior of rodents , 1983, Physiology & Behavior.

[124]  A. Guy,et al.  Low-level microwave irradiation attenuates naloxone-induced withdrawal syndrome in morphine-dependent rats , 1986, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[125]  S. T. Lu,et al.  Serum-thyroxine levels in microwave-exposed rats. , 1985, Radiation research.

[126]  B. Nielsen,et al.  Influence of passive and active heating on the temperature regulation of man. , 1965, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[127]  J. De Lorge,et al.  Lack of behavioral effects in the rhesus monkey: high peak microwave pulses at 1.3 GHz. , 1989, Bioelectromagnetics.

[128]  S. Webb,et al.  Absorption of Microwaves by Microorganisms , 1969, Nature.

[129]  J. B. Kinn,et al.  Assessment of the immune responsiveness of mice irradiated with continuous wave or pulse-modulated 425-MHz radio frequency radiation. , 1982, Bioelectromagnetics.

[130]  R. Adair Criticism of Lednev's mechanism for the influence of weak magnetic fields on biological systems. , 1992, Bioelectromagnetics.

[131]  Y. Akyel,et al.  Immediate post-exposure effects of high-peak-power microwave pulses on operant behavior of Wistar rats. , 1991, Bioelectromagnetics.

[132]  Maria A. Stuchly,et al.  Measurement of Radio Frequency Permittivity of Biological Tissues with an Open-Ended Coaxial Line: Part I , 1982 .

[133]  D. Schaefer Dosimetry and Effects of MR Exposure to RF and Switched Magnetic Fields , 1992, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[134]  S. T. Lu,et al.  Microwaves: effect on thermoregulatory behavior in rats. , 1979, Science.

[135]  S. T. Lu,et al.  Effects of microwaves on the adrenal cortex. , 1986, Radiation research.

[136]  O P Gandhi,et al.  Behavioral and physiological effects of chronic 2,450-MHz microwave irradiation of the rat at 0.5 mW/cm2. , 1986, Bioelectromagnetics.