Reconsidering Violence in Simple Human Societies: Homicide among the Gebusi of New Guinea [and Comments and Reply]

Homicide rates among the Gebusi of lowland New Guinea are among the highest yet reported. This paper characterizes and empirically tests Gebusi homicide data against the predictions of three theories commonly used to explain aspects of human violence: sociobiological theory, fraternal interest-group theory, and learning/socialization theory. The data strongly contravene the predictions of each of these theories. The seemingly exceptional nature of Gebusi homicide is in certain respects urprisingly similar to the dynamics of violence in highly decentralized and egalitarian societies such as the !Kung, the Central Eskimo, the Hadza, the Semai, and the Waorani. On the basis of a review of the evidence from these societies, violence in highly egalitarian human groups is characterized and a set of linked hypotheses forwarded to explain it.

[1]  D. Feil A Social Anthropologist's View of Papua New Guinea Highlands Prehistory , 1986 .

[2]  Keith F. Otterbein,et al.  An Eye for an Eye, A Tooth for a Tooth: A Cross-Cultural Study of Feuding' , 1965 .

[3]  M. Meggitt Desert People: A Study of the Walbiri Aborigines of Central Australia , 1965 .

[4]  T. Shibata,et al.  [The hunters]. , 1970, South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde.

[5]  Lou Marano Windigo psychosis: The anatomy of an emic–etic confusion. , 1985 .

[6]  M. Meggitt,et al.  Law and order in the New Guinea highlands , 1986, Law and History Review.

[7]  J. Woodburn Ecology, nomadic movement and the composition of the local group among hunters and gatherers : An east African example and its implications , 1972 .

[8]  R. Rosaldo,et al.  Ilongot Headhunting 1883-1974: A Study in Society and History. , 1982 .

[9]  C. Gamble The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe , 1987 .

[10]  P. Draper !Kung Women: Contrasts in Sexual Egalitarianism in Foraging and Sedentary Contexts , 1975 .

[11]  Margo Wilson,et al.  Male sexual jealousy , 1982 .

[12]  C. Boehm,et al.  Blood Revenge: The Anthropology of Feuding in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies , 1984 .

[13]  W. Mcneill Plagues and Peoples , 1977, The Review of Politics.

[14]  M. Ross The Limits to Social Structure: Social Structural and Psychocultural Explanations for Political Conflict and Violence , 1986 .

[15]  J. Nash Death as a Way of Life: The Increasing Resort to Homicide in a Maya Indian Community' , 1967 .

[16]  R. Ardrey,et al.  The Territorial Imperative , 1966 .

[17]  Gresham M. Sykes Rise of Critical Criminology, The , 1974 .

[18]  C. Turnbull,et al.  The Forest People , 1961 .

[19]  A. Barnard Contemporary Hunter-Gatherers: Current Theoretical Issues in Ecology and Social Organization , 1983 .

[20]  D. Campbell,et al.  Ethnocentrism: theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes, and group behavior , 1973 .

[21]  V. Turner Witchcraft and Sorcery: Taxonomy versus Dynamics , 1964, Africa.

[22]  A hunt in New Guinea: some difficulties for optimal foraging theory , 1985 .

[23]  P. Eckert,et al.  Central eskimo song duels: a contextual anylisis of ritual ambiguity , 1980 .

[24]  Biobehavioral aspects of aggression , 1981 .

[25]  T. Hollingsworth,et al.  Population and Metropolis: The Demography of London, 1580-1650. , 1981 .

[26]  Werner-Reimers-Stiftung,et al.  Past and Present in Hunter Gatherer Studies , 1986 .

[27]  M. Gluckman,et al.  Custom and Conflict in Africa , 1955 .

[28]  Richard B. Lee The Dobe !Kung , 1984 .

[29]  Bloodshed and Vengeance in the Papuan Mountains: The Generation of Conflict in Tauade Society , 1977 .

[30]  Marvin E. Wolfgang,et al.  Patterns in Criminal Homicide , 1958 .

[31]  J. Barnes AGNATION AMONG THE ENGA: A REVIEW ARTICLE , 1967 .

[32]  Donald Black Crime as Social Control , 1983 .

[33]  P. Dwyer Etolo hunting performance and energetics , 1983 .

[34]  Napoleon A. Chagnon,et al.  Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective , 1979 .

[35]  Jean L. Briggs,et al.  Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family , 1970 .

[36]  P. Bohannan,et al.  African Homicide and Suicide , 1960 .

[37]  K. Erikson Notes on the Sociology of Deviance , 1962 .

[38]  T. Headland Why foragers do not become farmers : a historical study of a changing ecosystem and its effect on a negrito hunter-gatherer group in the Philippines , 1986 .

[39]  L. Betzig Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History , 1986 .

[40]  D. Archer,et al.  Violent acts and violent times: a comparative approach to postwar homicide rates. , 1976, American sociological review.

[41]  G. Murdock World Ethnographic Sample , 1957 .

[42]  Margo Wilson,et al.  Competitiveness, risk taking, and violence: the young male syndrome , 1985, Ethology and Sociobiology.

[43]  M. Meggitt Blood Is Their Argument: Warfare Among the Mae Enga Tribesmen of the New Guinea Highlands , 1978 .

[44]  Robert A. Nisbet,et al.  Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance. , 1966 .

[45]  V. Reynolds,et al.  The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism: Evolutionary Dimensions of Xenophobia, Discrimination, Racism, and Nationalism , 1987 .

[46]  R. Rohner Worldwide Tests of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory: An Overview , 1980 .

[47]  G. Herdt The Sambia : ritual and gender in New Guinea , 1987 .

[48]  P. Dwyer PREY SWITCHING: A CASE STUDY FROM NEW GUINEA , 1982 .

[49]  R. Keesing,et al.  The Sorrow of the Lonely and the Burning of the Dancers. , 1977 .

[50]  W. Hamilton The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. , 1964, Journal of theoretical biology.

[51]  M. Foucault,et al.  Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. , 1978 .

[52]  C. Alcorta Paternal Behavior and Group Competition , 1982 .

[53]  H. Rose Lethal aspects of urban violence , 1979 .

[54]  M. Freedman,et al.  The Functions of Social Conflict , 1959 .

[55]  G. Herdt Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea , 1984 .

[56]  G. Morren The Miyanmin : human ecology of a Papua New Guinea society , 1986 .

[57]  Clayton A. Robarchek frustration, aggression, and the nonviolent Semai , 1977 .

[58]  M. Mcguire,et al.  Predictions derived from the theories of kin selection and reciprocation assessed by anthropological data , 1980 .

[59]  T. Ingold,et al.  Omnivorous primates : gathering and hunting in human evolution , 1982 .

[60]  Carol R. Ember,et al.  Myths about Hunter-Gatherers , 1978 .

[61]  R. Storey An Estimate of Mortality in a Pre-Columbian Urban Population , 1985 .

[62]  A. Montagu The nature of human aggression , 1976 .

[63]  Marvin Harris,et al.  Primitive social organization : an evolutionary perspective , 1962 .

[64]  J. Wind,et al.  The Evolution of the Capacity for Culture: Sociobiology, Structuralism, and Cultural Selectionism [and Comments and Replies] , 1986, Current Anthropology.

[65]  E. Russell Factors of Human Aggression: A Cross-Cultural Factor Analysis of. Characteristics Related to Warfare and Crime , 1972 .

[66]  B. Knauft Text and Social Practice: Narrative “Longing” and Bisexuality Among the Gebusi of New Guinea , 1986 .

[67]  Keith F. Otterbein,et al.  Believers and Beaters: A Case Study of Supernatural Beliefs and Child Rearing in the Bahama Islands , 1973 .

[68]  M. Wolfgang,et al.  Studies in Homicide. , 1968 .

[69]  Keith F. Otterbein,et al.  The Andros Islanders: A Study of Family Organization in the Bahamas. , 1967 .

[70]  P. Richerson,et al.  Culture and the Evolutionary Process , 1988 .

[71]  Edward O. Wilson,et al.  GENES, MIND AND CULTURE , 1984 .

[72]  James Byrne,et al.  The Social Ecology of Crime , 1986 .

[73]  M. Marwick Sorcery in Its Social Setting: A Study of the Northern Rhodesian Cewa. , 1965 .

[74]  N. Rai From forest to field : a study of Philippine Negrito foragers in transition , 1982 .

[75]  J. Woodburn Hunters and gatherers today and reconstruction of the past , 1980 .

[76]  McNeill Wh Historical patterns of migration. , 1979 .

[77]  Borgerhoff Mulder Progress in human sociobiology , 1987 .

[78]  Lorna Marshall,et al.  Sharing, Talking, and Giving: Relief of Social Tensions among !Kung Bushmen , 1961, Africa.

[79]  J. Given Society and Homicide in Thirteenth-Century England , 1978 .

[80]  Rudolph Rummel,et al.  Dimensions of conflict behavior within and between nations , 1963 .

[81]  M. Ross A Cross-Cultural Theory of Political Conflict and Violence , 1986 .