The Atmospheric Bridge: The Influence of ENSO Teleconnections on Air-Sea Interaction over the Global Oceans

During El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, the atmospheric response to sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the equatorial Pacific influences ocean conditions over the remainder of the globe. This connection between ocean basins via the ''atmospheric bridge'' is reviewed through an examination of previous work augmented by analyses of 50 years of data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction- National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR) reanalysis project and coupled atmospheric general circulation (AGCM)-mixed layer ocean model experiments. Observational and modeling studies have now established a clear link between SST anomalies in the equatorial Pacific with those in the North Pacific, north tropical Atlantic, and Indian Oceans in boreal winter and spring. ENSO-related SST anomalies also appear to be robust in the western North Pacific during summer and in the Indian Ocean during fall. While surface heat fluxes are the key component of the atmospheric bridge driving SST anomalies, Ekman transport also creates SST anomalies in the central North Pacific although the full extent of its impact requires further study. The atmospheric bridge not only influences SSTs on interannual timescales but also affects mixed layer depth (MLD), salinity, the seasonal evolution of upper-ocean temperatures, and North Pacific SST variability at lower fre- quencies. The model results indicate that a significant fraction of the dominant pattern of low-frequency (.10 yr) SST variability in the North Pacific is associated with tropical forcing. AGCM experiments suggest that the oceanic feedback on the extratropical response to ENSO is complex, but of modest amplitude. Atmosphere- ocean coupling outside of the tropical Pacific slightly modifies the atmospheric circulation anomalies in the Pacific-North America (PNA) region but these modifications appear to depend on the seasonal cycle and air- sea interactions both within and beyond the North Pacific Ocean.

[1]  P. Sardeshmukh,et al.  Global Atmospheric Sensitivity to Tropical SST Anomalies throughout the Indo-Pacific Basin , 2002 .

[2]  M. Hoerling,et al.  Atmospheric Response Patterns Associated with Tropical Forcing , 2002 .

[3]  R. Sutton,et al.  Atmospheric GCM Response to Extratropical SST Anomalies: Synthesis and Evaluation* , 2002 .

[4]  D. Vimont,et al.  Footprinting: A seasonal connection between the tropics and mid‐latitudes , 2001 .

[5]  T. Barnett,et al.  Modeling of North Pacific Climate Variability Forced by Oceanic Heat Flux Anomalies. , 2001 .

[6]  N. Lau,et al.  Impact of ENSO on SST Variability in the North Pacific and North Atlantic: Seasonal Dependence and Role of Extratropical Sea–Air Coupling , 2001 .

[7]  Mojib Latif,et al.  Tropical Pacific/Atlantic Ocean interactions at multi‐decadal time scales , 2001 .

[8]  W. Collins,et al.  The NCEP–NCAR 50-Year Reanalysis: Monthly Means CD-ROM and Documentation , 2001 .

[9]  Christopher R. Winkler,et al.  A Linear Model of Wintertime Low-Frequency Variability. Part I: Formulation and Forecast Skill , 2001 .

[10]  James D. Scott,et al.  Winter-to-winter recurrence of sea surface temperature, salinity and mixed layer depth anomalies , 2001 .

[11]  Prashant D. Sardeshmukh,et al.  Changes of Probability Associated with El Niño , 2000 .

[12]  Ngar-Cheung Lau,et al.  Impact of ENSO on the Variability of the Asian–Australian Monsoons as Simulated in GCM Experiments , 2000 .

[13]  T. Yamagata,et al.  Simulation of Interannual SST Variability in the Tropical Indian Ocean , 2000 .

[14]  R. Fu,et al.  Winter Monthly Mean Atmospheric Anomalies over the North Pacific and North America Associated with El Niño SSTs , 2000 .

[15]  A. Miller,et al.  Interdecadal climate regime dynamics in the North Pacific Ocean: theories, observations and ecosystem impacts , 2000 .

[16]  M. Kimoto,et al.  On the Persistence of Decadal SST Anomalies in the North Atlantic , 2000 .

[17]  James D. Scott,et al.  Processes that influence sea surface temperature and ocean mixed layer depth variability in a coupled model , 2000 .

[18]  R. Saravanan,et al.  Interaction between Tropical Atlantic Variability and El Niño–Southern Oscillation , 2000 .

[19]  B. Qiu.  Interannual Variability of the Kuroshio Extension System and Its Impact on the Wintertime SST Field , 2000 .

[20]  M. Latif,et al.  Tropical stabilization of the thermohaline circulation in a greenhouse warming simulation , 2000 .

[21]  Bin Wang,et al.  Pacific–East Asian Teleconnection: How Does ENSO Affect East Asian Climate? , 2000 .

[22]  M. Latif,et al.  The coupled GCM ECHO-2. Part II: Indian Ocean response to ENSO , 2000 .

[23]  M. England,et al.  Thermal Expansion in Ocean and Coupled General Circulation Models , 2000 .

[24]  T. Stocker,et al.  Enhanced Atlantic freshwater export during El Niño , 2000 .

[25]  T. Barnett,et al.  Connections between the Pacific Ocean Tropics and Midlatitudes on Decadal Timescales , 2000 .

[26]  W. Robinson.  Review of WETS–The Workshop on Extra-Tropical SST anomalies , 2000 .

[27]  M. Cane,et al.  Interannual Variability of Caribbean Rainfall, ENSO, and the Atlantic Ocean* , 2000 .

[28]  James D. Scott,et al.  A linear diagnosis of the coupled extratropical ocean–atmosphere system in the GFDL GCM , 2000 .

[29]  Net Shortwave Fluxes over the Ocean , 1999 .

[30]  B. Goswami,et al.  A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean , 1999, Nature.

[31]  Peter J. Webster,et al.  Coupled ocean–atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during 1997–98 , 1999, Nature.

[32]  Alberto M. Mestas-Nuñez,et al.  Multiscale Variabilities in Global Sea Surface Temperatures and Their Relationships with Tropospheric Climate Patterns , 1999 .

[33]  Alberto M. Mestas-Nuñez,et al.  Rotated Global Modes of Non-ENSO Sea Surface Temperature Variability , 1999 .

[34]  Antonio J. Busalacchi,et al.  Interannual Variability of the Dynamics and Thermodynamics of the Tropical Indian Ocean , 1999 .

[35]  C. Deser,et al.  The Reemergence of SST Anomalies in the North Pacific Ocean , 1999 .

[36]  D. Battisti,et al.  Interannual (ENSO) and Interdecadal (ENSO-like) Variability in the Southern Hemisphere Tropospheric Circulation* , 1999 .

[37]  Ngar-Cheung Lau,et al.  Remote Sea Surface Temperature Variations during ENSO: Evidence for a Tropical Atmospheric Bridge , 1999 .

[38]  M. Rodwell,et al.  Oceanic forcing of the wintertime North Atlantic Oscillation and European climate , 1999, Nature.

[39]  Michele M. Rienecker,et al.  Mechanisms for the Indian Ocean warming during the 1997–98 El Niño , 1999 .

[40]  D. Chambers,et al.  Anomalous warming in the Indian Ocean coincident with El Niño , 1999 .

[41]  I. Bladé.  The Influence of Midlatitude Ocean–Atmosphere Coupling on the Low-Frequency Variability of a GCM. Part II: Interannual Variability Induced by Tropical SST Forcing , 1999 .

[42]  IleanaBladé.  The Influence of Midlatitude Ocean–Atmosphere Coupling on the Low-Frequency Variability of a GCM. Part II: Interannual Variability Induced by Tropical SST Forcing* , 1999 .

[43]  Amir Shabbar,et al.  Modes of interannual and interdecadal variability of Pacific SST , 1998 .

[44]  D. E. Harrison,et al.  El Niño‐Southern Oscillation sea surface temperature and wind anomalies, 1946–1993 , 1998 .

[45]  M. Alexander,et al.  Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction in the North Atlantic: Near-Surface Climate Variability , 1998 .

[46]  J. Wallace,et al.  On the structure and evolution of ENSO‐related climate variability in the tropical Pacific: Lessons from TOGA , 1998 .

[47]  Kevin E. Trenberth,et al.  Progress during TOGA in understanding and modeling global teleconnections associated with tropical sea surface temperatures , 1998 .

[48]  M. Ghil,et al.  Trends, interdecadal and interannual oscillations in global sea-surface temperatures , 1998 .

[49]  R. Saravanan.  Atmospheric Low-Frequency Variability and Its Relationship to Midlatitude SST Variability: Studies Using the NCAR Climate System Model*. , 1998 .

[50]  M. Hoerling,et al.  Specification of regional sea surface temperatures in atmospheric general circulation model simulations , 1998 .

[51]  M. Newman,et al.  The Impact of the Annual Cycle on the North Pacific/North American Response to Remote Low-Frequency Forcing , 1998 .

[52]  Y. Kushnir,et al.  The Relationships between Tropical Pacific and Atlantic SST and Northeast Brazil Monthly Precipitation , 1998 .

[53]  Cécile Penland,et al.  Prediction of Tropical Atlantic Sea Surface Temperatures Using Linear Inverse Modeling , 1998 .

[54]  D. Battisti,et al.  The Basic Effects of Atmosphere–Ocean Thermal Coupling on Midlatitude Variability* , 1998 .

[55]  Kevin E. Trenberth,et al.  The Definition of El Niño. , 1997 .

[56]  P. Xie,et al.  Global Precipitation: A 17-Year Monthly Analysis Based on Gauge Observations, Satellite Estimates, and Numerical Model Outputs , 1997 .

[57]  James D. Scott,et al.  Surface Flux Variability over the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans , 1997 .

[58]  T. Yamagata,et al.  Decadal Climate Variability in the North Pacific during the Recent Decades , 1997 .

[59]  W. White,et al.  North Pacific thermocline variations on ENSO timescales , 1997 .

[60]  I. Bladé.  The Influence of Midlatitude Ocean–Atmosphere Coupling on the Low-Frequency Variability of a GCM. Part I: No Tropical SST Forcing* , 1997 .

[61]  J. Wallace,et al.  A Pacific Interdecadal Climate Oscillation with Impacts on Salmon Production , 1997 .

[62]  M. Hoerling,et al.  The Modeled Atmospheric Response to Midlatitude SST Anomalies and Its Dependence on Background Circulation States , 1997 .

[63]  J. Wallace,et al.  ENSO-like Interdecadal Variability: 1900–93 , 1997 .

[64]  Sharon E. Nicholson,et al.  Correction: An analysis of the ENSO signal in the tropical Atlantic and Western Indian oceans , 1997 .

[65]  S. Philander,et al.  Interdecadal Climate Fluctuations That Depend on Exchanges Between the Tropics and Extratropics , 1997, Science.

[66]  D. Enfield,et al.  Tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature variability and its relation to El Niño‐Southern Oscillation , 1997 .

[67]  N. Lau.  Interactions between global SST anomalies and the midlatitude atmospheric circulation , 1997 .

[68]  Mojib Latif,et al.  Decadal climate variability over the North Pacific and North America: Dynamics and predictability , 1996 .

[69]  John R. Lanzante,et al.  Lag relationships involving tropical sea surface temperatures , 1996 .

[70]  N. Lau,et al.  The Role of the “Atmospheric Bridge” in Linking Tropical Pacific ENSO Events to Extratropical SST Anomalies , 1996 .

[71]  C. Deser,et al.  Upper-Ocean Thermal Variations in the North Pacific during 1970–1991 , 1996 .

[72]  Yuan Zhang,et al.  Is Climate Variability over the North Pacific a Linear Response to ENSO , 1996 .

[73]  Thomas M. Smith,et al.  Reconstruction of Historical Sea Surface Temperatures Using Empirical Orthogonal Functions , 1996 .

[74]  Syukuro Manabe,et al.  Low-Frequency Variability of Surface Air Temperature in a 1000-Year Integration of a Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean-Land Surface Model , 1996 .

[75]  Alexander,et al.  Atlas of climatology and variability in the GFDL R30S14 GCM , 1995 .

[76]  G. Mitchum,et al.  Decadal and basin-scale variation in mixed layer depth and the impact on biological production in the Central and North Pacific, 1960-88 , 1995 .

[77]  M. Ting,et al.  Dynamics of the Early and Middle Winter Atmospheric Responses to the Northwest Atlantic SST Anomalies , 1995 .

[78]  J. Wallace,et al.  Large Scale Air Sea Interaction in the Northern Hemisphere from a View Point of Variations of Surfac , 1995 .

[79]  S. Hastenrath,et al.  Forcing of anomalous sea surface temperature evolution in the tropical Atlantic during Pacific warm events , 1995 .

[80]  Prashant D. Sardeshmukh,et al.  The Optimal Growth of Tropical Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies , 1995 .

[81]  Yves M. Tourre,et al.  ENSO Signals in Global Upper-Ocean Temperature , 1995 .

[82]  C. Deser,et al.  On the Relationship between Tropical and North Pacific Sea Surface Temperature Variations , 1995 .

[83]  Mojib Latif,et al.  Interactions of the Tropical Oceans , 1995 .

[84]  M. Hoerling,et al.  Prospects and Limitations of Seasonal Atmospheric GCM Predictions , 1995 .

[85]  W. White.  Design of a global observing system for gyre-scale upper ocean temperature variability , 1995 .

[86]  C. Deser,et al.  A Mechanism for the Recurrence of Wintertime Midlatitude SST Anomalies , 1995 .

[87]  T. P. Barnett,et al.  Causes of Decadal Climate Variability over the North Pacific and North America , 1994, Science.

[88]  F. Molteni,et al.  Impact of localized tropical and extratropical SST anomalies in ensembles of seasonal GCM integrations , 1994 .

[89]  Michael Ponater,et al.  On the Roles of Tropical and Midlatitude SSTs in Forcing Interannual to Interdecadal Variability in the Winter Northern Hemisphere Circulation , 1994 .

[90]  Ngar-Cheung Lau,et al.  A Modeling Study of the Relative Roles of Tropical and Extratropical SST Anomalies in the Variability of the Global Atmosphere-Ocean System , 1994 .

[91]  J. Kindle,et al.  Decade-scale trans-Pacific propagation and warming effects of an El Niño anomaly , 1994, Nature.

[92]  Thomas M. Smith,et al.  Improved Global Sea Surface Temperature Analyses Using Optimum Interpolation , 1994 .

[93]  James W. Hurrell,et al.  Decadal atmosphere-ocean variations in the Pacific , 1994 .

[94]  Ryuichi Kawamura,et al.  A rotated EOF analysis of global sea surface temperature variability with interannual and interdecadal scales , 1994 .

[95]  T. Barnett,et al.  Interdecadal variability of the Pacific Ocean: model response to observed heat flux and wind stress anomalies , 1994 .

[96]  P. Sardeshmukh,et al.  Factors Determining the Extratropical Response to Equatorial Diabatic Heating Anomalies. , 1993 .

[97]  S. Manabe,et al.  The Effects of Orography on Midlatitude Northern Hemisphere Dry Climates , 1992 .

[98]  H. Storch,et al.  Modeling the low-frequency sea surface temperature variability in the North Pacific , 1992 .

[99]  M. Alexander.  Midlatitude Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction during El Niño. Part II: The Northern Hemisphere Atmosphere , 1992 .

[100]  M. Alexander.  Midlatitude Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction during El Niño. Part I: The North Pacific Ocean , 1992 .

[101]  P. Richardson,et al.  Observations of the Mindanao Current during the western equatorial Pacific Ocean circulation study , 1991 .

[102]  Roger Lukas,et al.  The mixed layer of the western equatorial Pacific Ocean , 1991 .

[103]  M. Alexander.  Simulation of the response of the North Pacific Ocean to the anomalous atmospheric circulation associated with El Niño , 1990 .

[104]  A. Oort,et al.  Correlation analyses between sea surface temperature anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific and the world ocean , 1990 .

[105]  E. Maier‐Reimer,et al.  Modeling North Pacific SST anomalies as a response to anomalous atmospheric forcing , 1990 .

[106]  J. O'Brien,et al.  The northeast Pacific Ocean response to the 1982–1983 El Niño , 1990 .

[107]  M. Tegner,et al.  Bottoms Beneath Troubled Waters: Benthic Impacts of the 1982-1984 El Niño in the Temperate Zone , 1990 .

[108]  Henry F. Diaz,et al.  Global climatic anomalies associated with extremes in the Southern Oscillation , 1989 .

[109]  Modes of Tropical Circulation, Southern Oscillation, and Sahel Rainfall Anomalies , 1989 .

[110]  K. Hanawa,et al.  Composite Analyses of Wintertime Wind Stress Vector Fields with Respect to SST Anomalies in the West , 1989 .

[111]  S. Lyons,et al.  Transients and the Extratropical Response to El Niño , 1989 .

[112]  T. Nitta,et al.  Recent Warming of Tropical Sea Surface Temperature and Its Relationship to the Northern Hemisphere Circulation , 1989 .

[113]  K. Hanawa,et al.  Composite Analyses of Wintertime Wind Stress Vector Fields with Respect to SST Anomalies in the Western North Pacific and the ENSO Events Part II. ENSO Composite , 1989 .

[114]  K. Hanawa,et al.  Surface thermal conditions in the western North Pacific during the ENSO events , 1988 .

[115]  H. J. Niebauer.  Effects of El Nino‐Southern Oscillation and North Pacific weather patterns on interannual variability in the subarctic Bering Sea , 1988 .

[116]  B. Hoskins,et al.  The Generation of Global Rotational Flow by Steady Idealized Tropical Divergence , 1988 .

[117]  Philippe Gaspar,et al.  Modeling the Seasonal Cycle of the Upper Ocean , 1988 .

[118]  A. Parés-Sierra.  Interannual variability of the California Current System: A numerical model , 1989 .

[119]  C. Ropelewski,et al.  Global and Regional Scale Precipitation Patterns Associated with the El Niño/Southern Oscillation , 1987 .

[120]  K. Wolter.  The Southern Oscillation in Surface Circulation and Climate over the Tropical Atlantic, Eastern Pacific, and Indian Oceans as Captured by Cluster Analysis , 1987 .

[121]  T. Yasunari.  Global Structure of the El Nino/Southern Oscillation: Part I. El Nino Composites@@@第1部:エル•ニーニョ時の合成 , 1987 .

[122]  T. Yasunari.  Global Structure of the El Nino/Southern Oscillation: Part II. Time Evolution@@@第2部:ENSOサイクルに伴う変化 , 1987 .

[123]  C. A. Coombes,et al.  Comparison of infrared radiometrie, observed and sunshine‐derived cloud cover , 1986 .

[124]  Yong Zhao,et al.  Annual and interannual variability of the North Pacific ocean‐to‐atmosphere total heat transfer , 1986 .

[125]  C. Mooers,et al.  The 1982–1983 El Niño signal off northern California , 1986 .

[126]  L. Mysak.  El Niño, Interannual Variability and Fisheries in the Northeast Pacific Ocean , 1986 .

[127]  C. Frankignoul.  Sea surface temperature anomalies, planetary waves, and air‐sea feedback in the middle latitudes , 1985 .

[128]  G. Branstator.  Analysis of General Circulation Model Sea-Surface Temperature Anomaly Simulations Using a Linear Model. Part II: Eigenanalysis , 1985 .

[129]  G. Branstator.  Analysis of General Circulation Model Sea-Surface Temperature Anomaly Simulations Using a Linear Model. Part I: Forced Solutions , 1985 .

[130]  J. D. Opsteegh,et al.  Possible Causes of Anomalies in Seasonal Mean Circulation Patterns during the 1982–83 El Niño Event , 1985 .

[131]  D. Cadet.  The southern oscillation over the indian ocean , 1985 .

[132]  W. Emery,et al.  Atmospheric forcing of interannual variability in the northeast Pacific Ocean: Connections with El Niño , 1985 .

[133]  H. J. Niebauer.  On the effect of El Niño events in Alaskan waters , 1984 .

[134]  James J. Simpson,et al.  Large‐scale thermal anomalies in the California Current during the 1982‐1983 El Niño , 1983 .

[135]  R. Newell,et al.  The Principal Nonseasonal Modes of Variation of Global Sea Surface Temperature , 1983 .

[136]  R. Reynolds,et al.  Testing a Dynamical Model for Mid-Latitude Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies , 1983 .

[137]  A. Oort,et al.  Global Climate Variations Connected with Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies in the Eastern Equatorial Pacific Ocean for the 1958–73 Period , 1983 .

[138]  Eric J. Pitcher,et al.  A General Circulation Model Study of January Climate Anomaly Patterns Associated with Interannual Variation of Equatorial Pacific Sea Surface Temperatures , 1983 .

[139]  J. Wallace,et al.  Barotropic Wave Propagation and Instability, and Atmospheric Teleconnection Patterns. , 1983 .

[140]  D. Hartmann,et al.  Stationary Waves on a Sphere: Sensitivity to Thermal Feedback , 1982 .

[141]  W. Stern,et al.  A Description of the GFDL Global Spectral Model , 1982 .

[142]  E. Rasmusson,et al.  Variations in Tropical Sea Surface Temperature and Surface Wind Fields Associated with the Southern Oscillation/El Niño , 1982 .

[143]  K. Trenberth,et al.  Characteristic Patterns of Variability of Sea Level Pressure in the Northern Hemisphere , 1981 .

[144]  Brian J. Hoskins,et al.  The Steady Linear Response of a Spherical Atmosphere to Thermal and Orographic Forcing , 1981 .

[145]  R. A. Madden,et al.  The Southern Oscillation. Part I: Global Associations with Pressure and Temperature in Northern Winter , 1981 .

[146]  John M. Wallace,et al.  Planetary-Scale Atmospheric Phenomena Associated with the Southern Oscillation , 1981 .

[147]  A. E. Gill.  Some simple solutions for heat‐induced tropical circulation , 1980 .

[148]  R Browning.  Stationary waves , 1980 .

[149]  D. L. Covey,et al.  The Pacific El Niño Phenomenon and the Atlantic Circulation , 1978 .

[150]  B. Weare,et al.  Empirical Orthogonal Analysis of Pacific Sea Surface Temperatures , 1976 .

[151]  J. Namias.  Some Statistical and Synoptic Characteristics Associated with El Niño , 1976 .

[152]  J. Namias,et al.  Further studies of temporal coherence in North Pacific Sea surface temperatures , 1974 .

[153]  P. Rowntree,et al.  The influence of tropical east Pacific Ocean temperatures on the atmosphere , 1972 .

[154]  J. Namias,et al.  Temporal coherence in North Pacific sea‐surface temperature patterns , 1970 .

[155]  J. Bjerknes.  ATMOSPHERIC TELECONNECTIONS FROM THE EQUATORIAL PACIFIC1 , 1969 .

[156]  J. Bjerknes,et al.  A possible response of the atmospheric Hadley circulation to equatorial anomalies of ocean temperature , 1966 .

[157]  T. Matsuno,et al.  Quasi-geostrophic motions in the equatorial area , 1966 .

[158]  R. Fisher.  The Advanced Theory of Statistics , 1943, Nature.

[159]  J. Lockyer,et al.  On the similarity of the short-period pressure variation over large areas , 1903, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

[160]  B. Qiu,et al.  Interannual Variability of the Kuroshio Extension System and Its Impact on the Wintertime SST Field , 2022 .