Parsing as Reduction

We reduce phrase-representation parsing to dependency parsing. Our reduction is grounded on a new intermediate representation, "head-ordered dependency trees", shown to be isomorphic to constituent trees. By encoding order information in the dependency labels, we show that any off-the-shelf, trainable dependency parser can be used to produce constituents. When this parser is non-projective, we can perform discontinuous parsing in a very natural manner. Despite the simplicity of our approach, experiments show that the resulting parsers are on par with strong baselines, such as the Berkeley parser for English and the best single system in the SPMRL-2014 shared task. Results are particularly striking for discontinuous parsing of German, where we surpass the current state of the art by a wide margin.

[1]  1 Supplementary Material 1 . 1 Proof of Proposition 1 , .

[2]  Alexis Nasr,et al.  Pseudo-Projectivity, A Polynomially Parsable Non-Projective Dependency Grammar , 1998, ACL.

[3]  Sigrid Klerke,et al.  Down-stream effects of tree-to-dependency conversions , 2013, HLT-NAACL.

[4]  John D. Lafferty,et al.  Development and Evaluation of a Broad-Coverage Probabilistic Grammar of English-Language Computer Manuals , 1992, ACL.

[5]  Haim Gaifman,et al.  Dependency Systems and Phrase-Structure Systems , 1965, Inf. Control..

[6]  Joakim Nivre,et al.  A Dependency-Driven Parser for German Dependency and Constituency Representations , 2008, ACL 2008.

[7]  Andrew Y. Ng,et al.  Parsing with Compositional Vector Grammars , 2013, ACL.

[8]  Alexander M. Rush,et al.  Transforming Dependencies into Phrase Structures , 2015, NAACL.

[9]  Agnieszka Falenska,et al.  Introducing the IMS-Wrocław-Szeged-CIS entry at the SPMRL 2014 Shared Task: Reranking and Morpho-syntax meet Unlabeled Data , 2014 .

[10]  Noah A. Smith,et al.  Turning on the Turbo: Fast Third-Order Non-Projective Turbo Parsers , 2013, ACL.

[11]  Yuji Matsumoto,et al.  Statistical Dependency Analysis with Support Vector Machines , 2003, IWPT.

[12]  Fei Xia,et al.  Converting Dependency Structures to Phrase Structures , 2001, HLT.

[13]  Eugene Charniak,et al.  Coarse-to-Fine n-Best Parsing and MaxEnt Discriminative Reranking , 2005, ACL.

[14]  David J. Weir,et al.  Characterizing Structural Descriptions Produced by Various Grammatical Formalisms , 1987, ACL.

[15]  Richard Johansson,et al.  Dependency-based Semantic Role Labeling of PropBank , 2008, EMNLP.

[16]  Joakim Nivre,et al.  Labeled Pseudo-Projective Dependency Parsing with Support Vector Machines , 2006, CoNLL.

[17]  Wolfgangmaier Andanderssøgaard,et al.  Treebanks and Mild Context-Sensitivity , 2008 .

[18]  Dan Klein,et al.  Accurate Unlexicalized Parsing , 2003, ACL.

[19]  Beatrice Santorini,et al.  Building a Large Annotated Corpus of English: The Penn Treebank , 1993, CL.

[20]  Fernando Pereira,et al.  Multilingual Dependency Analysis with a Two-Stage Discriminative Parser , 2006, CoNLL.

[21]  Jason Eisner,et al.  Three New Probabilistic Models for Dependency Parsing: An Exploration , 1996, COLING.

[22]  Jun'ichi Tsujii,et al.  Probabilistic CFG with Latent Annotations , 2005, ACL.

[23]  Alexander M. Rush,et al.  On Dual Decomposition and Linear Programming Relaxations for Natural Language Processing , 2010, EMNLP.

[24]  Fernando Pereira,et al.  Non-Projective Dependency Parsing using Spanning Tree Algorithms , 2005, HLT.

[25]  Sabine Brants,et al.  The TIGER Treebank , 2001 .

[26]  Michael Collins,et al.  A Statistical Parser for Czech , 1999, ACL.

[27]  Giorgio Satta,et al.  Efficient Parsing for Bilexical Context-Free Grammars and Head Automaton Grammars , 1999, ACL.

[28]  Wojciech Skut,et al.  An Annotation Scheme for Free Word Order Languages , 1997, ANLP.

[29]  Alon Lavie,et al.  A Classifier-Based Parser with Linear Run-Time Complexity , 2005, IWPT.

[30]  Eugene Charniak,et al.  Tree-Bank Grammars , 1996, AAAI/IAAI, Vol. 2.

[31]  Dan Klein,et al.  Less Grammar, More Features , 2014, ACL.

[32]  Joakim Nivre,et al.  Transition-based Dependency Parsing with Rich Non-local Features , 2011, ACL.

[33]  Djamé Seddah,et al.  Multilingual discriminative shift reduce phrase structure parsing for the SPMRL 2014 shared task , 2014 .

[34]  Michael Collins,et al.  Head-Driven Statistical Models for Natural Language Parsing , 2003, CL.

[35]  Dan Klein,et al.  Improved Inference for Unlexicalized Parsing , 2007, NAACL.

[36]  David H. D. Warren,et al.  Parsing as Deduction , 1983, ACL.

[37]  Laura Kallmeyer,et al.  PLCFRS Parsing Revisited: Restricting the Fan-Out to Two , 2012, TAG.

[38]  Dan Klein,et al.  Jointly Learning to Extract and Compress , 2011, ACL.

[39]  Xuanjing Huang,et al.  Phrase Dependency Parsing for Opinion Mining , 2009, EMNLP.

[40]  Alexander M. Rush,et al.  Vine Pruning for Efficient Multi-Pass Dependency Parsing , 2012, NAACL.

[41]  Joakim Nivre,et al.  Mildly Non-Projective Dependency Structures , 2006, ACL.

[42]  Laura Kallmeyer,et al.  Data-Driven Parsing with Probabilistic Linear Context-Free Rewriting Systems , 2010, COLING.

[43]  Rens Bod,et al.  Discontinuous Parsing with an Efficient and Accurate DOP Model , 2013, IWPT.

[44]  Mark Johnson,et al.  PCFG Models of Linguistic Tree Representations , 1998, CL.

[45]  Adriane Boyd,et al.  Discontinuity Revisited: An Improved Conversion to Context-Free Representations , 2007, LAW@ACL.

[46]  Reut Tsarfaty,et al.  Introducing the SPMRL 2014 Shared Task on Parsing Morphologically-rich Languages , 2014 .

[47]  Ines Rehbein,et al.  Treebank-based grammar acquisition for German , 2009 .

[48]  Andreas van Cranenburgh.  Efficient parsing with Linear Context-Free Rewriting Systems , 2012, EACL.

[49]  Michael Collins,et al.  Efficient Third-Order Dependency Parsers , 2010, ACL.

[50]  Yannick Versley,et al.  How to Compare Treebanks , 2008, LREC.

[51]  Giorgio Satta,et al.  On the Complexity of Non-Projective Data-Driven Dependency Parsing , 2007, IWPT.

[52]  Giorgio Satta,et al.  Efficient Parsing of Well-Nested Linear Context-Free Rewriting Systems , 2010, HLT-NAACL.

[53]  Yuji Matsumoto.  MaltParser: A language-independent system for data-driven dependency parsing , 2005 .

[54]  Liang Huang,et al.  Forest Reranking: Discriminative Parsing with Non-Local Features , 2008, ACL.

[55]  Yannick Versley.  Incorporating Semi-supervised Features into Discontinuous Easy-First Constituent Parsing , 2014, ArXiv.

[56]  Yannick Versley,et al.  Experiments with Easy-first nonprojective constituent parsing , 2014 .

[57]  Christopher D. Manning,et al.  Generating Typed Dependency Parses from Phrase Structure Parses , 2006, LREC.

[58]  Xavier Carreras,et al.  TAG, Dynamic Programming, and the Perceptron for Efficient, Feature-Rich Parsing , 2008, CoNLL.