Side Effects of Insecticides on Natural Enemies and Possibility of Their Integration in Plant Protection Strategies

Recently, plant protection strategy has recommended, minimizing the use of chemical pesticides. Therefore, studying the side effect of insecticides on the natural enemies is highly required to exclude the detrimental effects on the natural enemies. Every crop is infested by various pests; some but not all of them may be controlled by biological means using pathogens, predators, parasitoids and spiders. But to achieve a satisfactory control of complexes of pests, selective pesticides are also indispensable. In fact, they are a prerequisite of Integrated Pest Management.

[1]  P. A. Sebastian,et al.  THE SPIDER FAUNA OF THE IRRIGATED RICE ECOSYSTEM IN CENTRAL KERALA, INDIA ACROSS DIFFERENT ELEVATIONAL RANGES , 2005 .

[2]  R. Swaminathan,et al.  Side effects of a few botanicals on the aphidophagous coccinellids , 2010 .

[3]  T. Ofuya.  Effect of some plant extracts on two coccinellid predators of the cowpea aphid,Aphis craccivora (Hom.: Aphididae) , 1997, Entomophaga.

[4]  G. B. Edwards,et al.  SPIDERS IN UNITED STATES FIELD CROPS AND THEIR POTENTIAL EFFECT ON CROP PESTS , 1990 .

[5]  A. Pozzebon,et al.  Pesticide side-effects on predatory mites: the role of trophic interactions , 2010 .

[6]  A. Pozzebon,et al.  Grape downy mildew Plasmopara viticola, an alternative food for generalist predatory mites occurring in vineyards , 2008 .

[7]  C. Volkmar,et al.  Zur epigäischen spinnenfauna im mitteldeutschen agrarraum, deren beeinflussung durch unterschiedliche pflanzenschutzmassnahmen und ihre bedeutung für den integrierten pflanzenbau , 1998 .

[8]  G. Smagghe,et al.  Compatibility of Spinosad, Tebufenozide and Azadirachtin with Eggs and Pupae of the Predator Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) Under Laboratory Conditions , 2001 .

[9]  S. A. Hassan,et al.  Standard methods to test the side‐effects of pesticides on natural enemies of insects and mites developed by the IOBC/WPRS Working Group ‘Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms’ , 1985 .

[10]  Bluemel,et al.  Effect of pesticide mixtures on the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis A.H. (Acarina, Phytoseiidae) in the laboratory , 2001 .

[11]  S. Kawamura,et al.  Biological characteristics: growth and development of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma dendrolimi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on the cabbage armyworm Mamestra brassicae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) , 2000 .

[12]  J. Crane,et al.  Comparison of Different Sampling Methods and Effect of Pesticide Application on Spider Populations in Lime Orchards in South Florida , 2001 .

[13]  A. Masoud.  STUDY ON EFFECTIVENESS OF PHYTOSEIULUS PERSIMILIS IN CONTROL OF CUCUMBER TWO SPOTTED SPIDER MITE (TETRANYCHUS URTICAE COMPLEX) IN WOODY AND IRON GREENHOUSE STRUCTURES IN VARAMINE REGION , 2007 .

[14]  W. Fagan,et al.  Interactions between Biological Control Efforts and Insecticide Applications in Tropical Rice Agroecosystems: The Potential Role of Intraguild Predation , 1998 .

[15]  A. Krishnamoorthy,et al.  Toxicity of some insecticides to Apanteles plutellae a parasite of the diamond back moth , 1984 .

[16]  Kent M. Daane,et al.  Commercialization of Predators: Recent Lessons from Green Lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae: Chrosoperla) , 2000 .

[17]  F. Zalom,et al.  Effect of Methamidophos Residue on the Pentatomid Egg ParasitoidsTrissolcus basalisandT. utahensis(Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) , 1996 .

[18]  W. Fagan,et al.  Direct and Indirect Effects of Generalist Predators on a Terrestrial Arthropod Community , 1991 .

[19]  J. W. Smith,et al.  Ecology of Spiders (Araneae) in a Peanut Agroecosystem , 1989 .

[20]  J. V. van Lenteren,et al.  A greenhouse without pesticides: fact or fantasy? , 2000 .

[21]  K. Ascher,et al.  Effects of neemgard on phytophagous and predacious mites and on Spiders , 1997, Phytoparasitica.

[22]  R. Isaacs,et al.  Reduced-risk Insecticides for Control of Grape Berry Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and Conservation of Natural Enemies , 2007, Journal of economic entomology.

[23]  K. Kamali,et al.  SIDE-EFFECTS OF THREE ACARICIDES ON THE PREDATORY MITE, PHYTOSEIULUS PERSIMILIS ATHIAS-HENRIOT (ACARI: PHYTOSEIIDAE) UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS , 2008 .

[24]  M. Nyffeler.  Ecological impact of spider predation: a critical assessment of Bristowe's and Turnbull's estimates. , 2000 .

[25]  A. G. Lanjar,et al.  COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF SOME INSECTICIDES ON 4 th INSTAR GRUB OF Coccinella septempunctata L . UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS , 2010 .

[26]  B. Pawlik,et al.  The influence of some insect growth regulators on mortality and fecundity of the aphidophagous coccinellids Adalia bipunctata L. and Coccinella septempunctata L. (Col., Coccinellidae) , 1994 .

[27]  G. Wiegers,et al.  Side‐effects of 100 pesticides on the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis, collected and evaluated according to the EPPO Guideline , 1991 .

[28]  M. Nyffeler,et al.  How Spiders Make a Living , 1994 .

[29]  K. Walters,et al.  Consumption rates and predatory activity of adult and fourth instar larvae of the seven spot ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata (L.), following contact with dimethoate residue and contaminated prey in laboratory arenas , 2004 .

[30]  M. Subrahmanyam,et al.  Insect Antifeedants And Growth Inhibitors From Azadirachta Indica And Plumbago Zeylanica , 1983 .

[31]  G. Benz,et al.  Feeding ecology and predatory importance of wolf spiders (Pardosa spp.) (Araneae, Lycosidae) in winter wheat fields 1 , 1988 .

[32]  M. Kivan.  Effects of some insecticides that are used controlling Eurygaster integriceps Put. (Heteroptera, Scutelleridae) on emergence of its egg parasitoid Trissolcus semistriatus Nees (Hymenoptera, Scelinoidae) , 1996 .

[33]  J. Settele,et al.  Predator–prey interactions in rice ecosystems: effects of guild composition, trophic relationships, and land use changes — a model study exemplified for Philippine rice terraces , 2001 .

[34]  A. Migeon,et al.  First additions and corrections to the World Catalogue of the Spider Mite Family (Acari: Tetranychidae) , 1998 .

[35]  F. Drummond,et al.  TB190: Spider Predation in Agroecosystems: Can Spiders Effectively Control Pest Populations. , 2003 .

[36]  M. Osman,et al.  Effects of neem seed extracts on Pholeastor (Apanteles) glomeratus L. (Hym., Braconidae), a parasitoid of Pieries brassicae L. (Lep., Pieridae) , 1993 .

[37]  K. Talebi,et al.  Side-effects of three pesticides on the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) , 2004, Experimental & Applied Acarology.

[38]  A. Soares,et al.  Voracity of Coccinella undecimpunctata: effects of insecticides when foraging in a prey/plant system , 2011, Journal of Pest Science.

[39]  S. A. Hassan,et al.  Side‐effects of insecticides used in tomato fields on the egg parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hym., Trichogrammatidae), a natural enemy of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lep., Gelechiidae) , 1998 .

[40]  G. Smagghe,et al.  Toxicity and Absorption of Azadirachtin, Diflubenzuron, Pyriproxyfen, and Tebufenozide after Topical Application in Predatory Larvae of Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) , 2003 .

[41]  J. G. Shin,et al.  Toxicity of greenhouse pesticides to multicolored Asian lady beetles, Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) , 2003 .

[42]  A. Soares,et al.  Suitability of Aphis fabae, Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Aleyrodes proletella (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) as prey for Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) , 2006 .

[43]  D. Orr,et al.  Effect of Insecticide Applications in Soybeans on Trissolcus basalis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) , 1989 .

[44]  A. Bozsik.  Susceptibility of adult Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to insecticides with different modes of action. , 2006, Pest management science.

[45]  M. Nyffeler,et al.  Spiders in natural pest control: A review 1 , 1987 .

[46]  N. Beckage,et al.  Disruptive Effects of Azadirachtin on Development of Cotesia congregata in Host Tobacco Hornworm Larvae , 1988 .

[47]  E. Lucas,et al.  Prey preference of Hyaliodes vitripennis as an intraguild predator: Active predator choice or passive selection? , 2006 .

[48]  Remigiusz W. Olszak.  Influence of some pesticides on mortality and fecundity of the aphidophagous coccinellid Adalia bipunctata L. (Col., Coccinellidae) , 1999 .

[49]  W. J. Lewis,et al.  Understanding How Parasitoids Balance Food and Host Needs: Importance to Biological Control , 1998 .

[50]  J. Sanderson,et al.  Relative Toxicity of Abamectin to the Predatory Mite Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and Twospotted Spider Mite (Acari: Tetranychidae) , 1990 .

[51]  N. El-Wakeil.  New Aspects of Biological Control of Helicoverpa armigera in Organic Cotton Production , 2003 .

[52]  Y. Hirose.  Biological and ecological comparison of Trichogramma and Telenomus as control agents of lepidopterous pests 1 , 1986 .

[53]  E. Hag.  Potential role of indigenous Coccinellidae in regulation of aphid populations in Central Arabia wheat fields. , 1992 .

[54]  M. Feldhege,et al.  Investigations on side‐effects of Margosan‐O on Encarsia formosa Gah. (Hym., Aphelinidae), parasitoid of the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westw. (Hom., Aleyrodidae) , 1993 .

[55]  J. Devillers,et al.  The proboscis extension response: assessing the sublethal effects of pesticides on the honey bee. , 2002 .

[56]  M. Binns,et al.  EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE USE ON SPIDERS (ARANEAE) IN QUEBEC APPLE ORCHARDS , 1984, The Canadian Entomologist.

[57]  D. Rosen,et al.  Disturbing effect of a spider on larval aggregations of Spodoptera littoralis , 1981 .

[58]  C. Peter.  New records of natural enemies associated with the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal). , 1988 .

[59]  E. Grafton-Cardwell,et al.  Conserving vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), in citrus: a continuing challenge as new insecticides gain registration. , 2003, Journal of economic entomology.

[60]  H. Schmutterer.  Side‐effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) products on insect pathogens and natural enemies of spider mites and insects * , 1997 .

[61]  Lu,et al.  Biodiversity and Dynamics of Planthoppers and Their Natural Enemies in Rice Fields with Different Nitrogen Regimes , 2006 .

[62]  F. Bakker,et al.  Comparative trials on the effects of two fungicides on a predatory mite in the laboratory and in the field , 2000 .

[63]  Benrong Chen,et al.  Impact of intraguild predators on survival of a forest-floor wolf spider , 1999, Oecologia.

[64]  P. Singh,et al.  Effect of insecticides on the emergence ofTrichogramma Brasiliensis [Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae] from parasitized host eggs , 1987, Entomophaga.

[65]  G. Kennedy,et al.  Effect of Parasitoids on Lepidopterous Pests in Insecticide-Treated and Untreated Tomatoes in Western North Carolina , 1991 .

[66]  S. Roach.  Observations on Feeding and Prey Selection by Phidippus audax (Hentz) (Araneae: Salticidae) , 1987 .

[67]  S. Marshall,et al.  Patterns in the Distribution of Two Wolf Spiders (Araneae: Lycosidae) in Two Soybean Agroecosytems , 1999 .

[68]  C. Volkmar,et al.  Zur wirkung des synthetischen pyrethroids mavrik auf räuberische arthropoden im winterweizen , 1996 .

[69]  Steven E. Naranjo,et al.  Conservation and evaluation of natural enemies in IPM systems for Bemisia tabaci , 2001 .

[70]  H. Mattioda,et al.  Side effects of mancozeb on Typhlodromus pyri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) in vineyards: results of multi-year field trials and a laboratory study , 2004, Experimental & Applied Acarology.

[71]  H. Schmutterer.  Einfluß von Azadirachtin, einer azadirachtinfreien Fraktion eines alkoholischen Niemsamenextraktes und von formulierten Extrakten auf Verpuppung, Schlupf und Imagines der Kohlweißlingsbrackwespe Apanteles glomeratus (L.) (Hym., Braconidae) , 1992 .

[72]  K. Heong,et al.  Population dynamics of plant- and leafhoppers and their natural enemies in rice ecosystems in the Philippines , 1992 .

[73]  A. Pervez.  Functional and numerical responses of Propylea dissecta (Col., Coccinellidae) , 2004 .

[74]  D. Pratissoli,et al.  Insecticide toxicity to Trichogrammapretiosum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) females and effect on descendant generation , 2009, Ecotoxicology.

[75]  Allen E. Knutson.  The Trichogramma Manual. , 1998 .

[76]  J. Stark,et al.  Multiple routes of pesticide exposure and the risk of pesticides to biological controls : A study of neem and the sevenspotted lady beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) , 1998 .

[77]  N. Mandour.  Influence of spinosad on immature and adult stages of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) , 2009, BioControl.

[78]  S. Riechert,et al.  Test for predation effects of single versus multiple species of generalist predators: spiders and their insect prey , 1997 .

[79]  S. Buchholz,et al.  Diversity and distribution of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) in dry ecosystems of North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany) , 2009 .

[80]  G. Herron,et al.  Clofentezine and hexythiazox resistance in Tetranychus urticae Koch in Australia , 1993, Experimental & Applied Acarology.

[81]  W. Jones,et al.  Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Insecticides on Two Parasitoids AttackingBemisia argentifolii(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)☆☆☆ , 1998 .

[82]  M. Smitha,et al.  Safety of pesticidal sprays to natural enemies in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). , 2006 .

[83]  K. Walters,et al.  Behaviour of the adult seven spot ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), in response to dimethoate residue on bean plants in the laboratory. , 2001, Bulletin of entomological research.

[84]  A. Soares,et al.  Does pirimicarb affect the voracity of the euriphagous predator, Coccinella undecimpunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)? , 2006 .

[85]  C. Volkmar,et al.  Spider communities in Bt maize and conventional maize fields , 2004 .

[86]  S. Blümel,et al.  Evaluation of different methods to assess the side-effects of pesticides on Phytoseiulus persimilis A.-H. , 1993, Experimental & Applied Acarology.

[87]  W. J. Lewis,et al.  Disruptive Sublethal Effects of Insecticides on Biological Control: Altered Foraging Ability and Life Span of a Parasitoid after Feeding on Extrafloral Nectar of Cotton Treated with Systemic Insecticides , 2000 .

[88]  S. Riechert,et al.  Prey Control by an Assemblage of Generalist Predators: Spiders in Garden Test Systems , 1990 .

[89]  R. Denno,et al.  Health food versus fast food: the effects of prey quality and mobility on prey selection by a generalist predator and indirect interactions among prey species , 2000 .

[90]  C. Edwards,et al.  The influence of chemical management of pests, diseases and weeds on pest and predatory arthropods associated with tomatoes. , 1998 .

[91]  J. Everts,et al.  A method for testing the toxicity of residues of pesticides on a standardized substrate to erigonid and linyphiid spiders , 1990 .

[92]  E. Lucas,et al.  Impact of intraguild predation and lambda-cyhalothrin on predation efficacy of three acarophagous predators. , 2005, Pest management science.

[93]  K. Ascher,et al.  effects of neem(Azadirachta indica) seed kernel extracts from different solvents on the predacious mitePhytoseiulus persimilis and the phytophagous miteTetranychus cinnabarinus , 1987, Phytoparasitica.

[94]  G. R. Babu,et al.  Efficacy of neem oil and neem cake for the control of green leafhoppers, brown planthoppers and their effect on predators of brown plant hoppers. , 1998 .

[95]  M. Nyffeler.  PREY SELECTION OF SPIDERS IN THE FIELD , 1999 .

[96]  A. Soares,et al.  Effects of pirimicarb, buprofezin and pymetrozine on survival, development and reproduction of Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) , 2008 .

[97]  L. Sigsgaard.  Early season natural biological control of insect pests in rice by spiders-and some factors in the management of the cropping system that may affect this control , 2002 .

[98]  D. James.  Pesticide Susceptibility of Two Coccinellids (Stethorus punctum picipes and Harmonia axyridis) Important in Biological Control of Mites and Aphids in Washington Hops , 2003 .

[99]  Linda M. Luxon,et al.  Biological effects of noise , 1998 .

[100]  Axel Decourtye,et al.  The sublethal effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods. , 2007, Annual review of entomology.

[101]  R. Singh,et al.  Host preference and feeding potential of spiders predaceous on insect pests of rice. , 1996 .

[102]  R. Prokopy,et al.  Pesticide effect on faunal composition, abundance, and body length of spiders (Araneae) in apple orchards , 1997 .

[103]  S. Facknath,et al.  Application of neem extract and intercropping for the control of cabbage pests in Mauritius. , 1999 .

[104]  Tong‐Xian Liu,et al.  Selectivity of insecticides to Encarsia pergandiella (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), an endoparasitoid of Bemisia argentifolii (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) , 1997 .

[105]  W. E. Snyder,et al.  Predator Interference and the Establishment of Generalist Predator Populations for Biocontrol , 1999 .

[106]  K. Walters,et al.  Locomotory behaviour of the seven‐spotted ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata, in response to five commonly used insecticides , 2008 .

[107]  J. Koeman,et al.  Side-effects of pesticides on ground-dwelling predatory arthropods in arable ecosystems. , 1989, Environmental pollution.

[108]  A. Lang,et al.  Predation by ground beetles and wolf spiders on herbivorous insects in a maize crop , 1999 .

[109]  N. El-Wakeil,et al.  Side effect of some Neem products on natural enemies of Helicoverpa (Trichogramma spp.) and Chrysoperla carnea , 2006 .

[110]  R. Singh,et al.  Side effects of neem products on insect pathogens and natural enemies of spider mites and insects. , 1999 .

[111]  D. Fournier,et al.  Toxicity of Pesticide Residues to a Beneficial Arthropod, Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) , 1992 .

[112]  N. Hussey,et al.  Biological Pest Control: The Glasshouse Experience , 1985 .

[113]  John E. Banks,et al.  Estimating susceptibility of biological control agents to pesticides: influence of life history strategies and population structure , 2004 .

[114]  K. Walters,et al.  Feeding responses of adult seven-spotted ladybirds, Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae), to insecticide contaminated prey in laboratory arenas , 2007 .

[115]  G. Smagghe,et al.  Laboratory Effects of Ingestion of Azadirachtin by Two Pests ( Ceratitis capitata and Spodoptera exigua ) and Three Natural Enemies ( Chrysoperla carnea , Opius concolor and Podisus maculiventris ) , 2000 .

[116]  M. Simmonds,et al.  Effect of Botanical Insecticides on the Foraging and Feeding Behavior of the Coccinellid PredatorCryptolaemus montrouzieri , 2000, Phytoparasitica.

[117]  A. Canard,et al.  Spiders (Araneae) useful for pest limitation and bioindication , 1999 .

[118]  I. Hodek.  Biology of Coccinellidae , 1973, Springer Netherlands.

[119]  E. Beers,et al.  Effect of Pesticides on Colpoclypeus florus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and Trichogramma platneri (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), Parasitoids of Leafrollers in Washington , 2001, Journal of economic entomology.

[120]  C. Volkmar,et al.  Effekte moderner Verfahren der Bodenbewirtschaftung auf die Aktivität epigäischer Raubarthropoden , 2003, Gesunde Pflanzen.

[121]  天野 洋.  『Mites of Greenhouses: Identification, Biology and Control』, Zhi-Qiang Zhang著, 2003年9月発行, CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK, 244 pp., $US 80.00, ISBN 0-85199-590X , 2004 .

[122]  Á. Guerrero,et al.  Pheromone-based integrated pest management to control the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella in cabbage fields. , 2000 .

[123]  Christine Woodcock,et al.  Activity of quassinoids as antifeedants against aphids , 1989, Journal of Chemical Ecology.

[124]  L. Samsøe-petersen.  Laboratory method for testing side effects of pesticides on juvenile stages of the predatory mite,Phytoseiulus persimilis [Acarina, Phytoseiidae] based on detached bean leaves , 1983, Entomophaga.

[125]  S. Riechert,et al.  Spiders as Biological Control Agents , 1984 .

[126]  E. Rubia,et al.  Predation of yellow stem borer YSB by wolf spider , 1990 .

[127]  T. Motobayashi,et al.  Effects of tillage practices on spider assemblage in rice paddy fields , 2006 .

[128]  K. Sunderland.  MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE EFFECTS OF SPIDERS ON PEST POPULATIONS , 1910 .

[129]  B. Joshi,et al.  Effect of a neem seed kernel suspension onTelenomus remus, an egg parasite ofSpodoptera litura , 1982, Phytoparasitica.

[130]  A. Dixon,et al.  Distribution of linyphiid spiders in relation to capture of prey in cereal fields , 1986, Pedobiologia.

[131]  Roger Vargas,et al.  Incorporating Ecologically Relevant Measures of Pesticide Effect for Estimating the Compatibility of Pesticides and Biocontrol Agents , 2007, Journal of economic entomology.

[132]  Effects of azadirachtin-based insecticides on the egg parasitoid Trichogramma minutum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) , 2003, The Canadian Entomologist.

[133]  A. Hoffmann,et al.  Developing an Ecotoxicological Testing Standard for Predatory Mites in Australia: Acute and Sublethal Effects of Fungicides on Euseius victoriensis and Galendromus occidentalis (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) , 2004, Journal of economic entomology.

[134]  R. Singh,et al.  Effectiveness and economics of various treatments and their impact on spider population in rice ecosystem. , 2000 .

[135]  Seon-Gon Kim,et al.  Effects of Selected Pesticides on the Predatory Mite, Amblyseius cucumeris (Acari: Phytoseiidae) , 2005 .

[136]  J. Litsinger,et al.  The spider fauna of Philippine rice agroecosystems. II. Wetland. , 1984 .

[137]  D. Orr,et al.  Effect of Insecticides on Trichogramma exiguum (Trichogrammatidae: Hymenoptera) Preimaginal Development and Adult Survival , 2000, Journal of economic entomology.

[138]  Larry P. Pedigo,et al.  Entomology and pest management , 1989 .

[139]  V. A. Dyck,et al.  Population regulation of the rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål) within rice fields in the Philippines. , 1984 .

[140]  B. Sauphanor,et al.  Results of the sixth joint pesticide testing programme of the IOBC/WPRS-working group «pesticides and beneficial organisms» , 1994, Entomophaga.

[141]  S. Ayoub,et al.  Selectivity of emamectin benzoate to predators of sucking pests on cotton , 2003 .

[142]  Uno Wennergren,et al.  Can Population Effects of Pesticides Be Predicted from Demographic Toxicological Studies , 1995 .

[143]  P. A. Sebastian,et al.  Seasonal variation in spider abundance in Kuttanad rice agroecosystem, Kerala, India (Araneae) , 2005 .

[144]  A. Zaitoon,et al.  Biological Parameters for Four Coccinellid Species in Central Saudi Arabia , 1996 .

[145]  O. P. Young,et al.  The striped lynx spider,Oxyopes salticus [Araneae: Oxyopidae], in agroecosystems , 1985, Entomophaga.

[146]  Ryoichi Hamada.  Egg Parasitoids of Common Cutworm, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). , 1992 .

[147]  J. Bell,et al.  THE EFFECTS OF ORGANIC FARMING ON SURFACE-ACTIVE SPIDER (ARANEAE) ASSEMBLAGES IN WHEAT IN SOUTHERN ENGLAND, UK , 1998 .

[148]  B. David,et al.  Comparative toxicity of some insecticides to Apanteles taragamae (hymenoptera: Braconidae) , 1988 .

[149]  Ezio Venturino,et al.  Spiders as biological controllers in the agroecosystem. , 2009, Journal of theoretical biology.

[150]  Paul DeBach,et al.  Biological Control by Natural Enemies. , 1975 .

[151]  T. Kring,et al.  Predaceous Coccinellidae in biological control. , 1998, Annual review of entomology.

[152]  J. Everts.  Sensitive indicators of side-effects of pesticides on the epigeal fauna of Arable land , 1990 .

[153]  S. Jayakumar,et al.  Spider population and their predatory efficiency in different rice establishment techniques in Aduthurai, Tamil Nadu. , 2010 .

[154]  M. Shoeb.  Effect of some insecticides on the immature stages of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma evanescens West. (Hym., Trichogrammatidae ) , 2010 .

[155]  K. Ascher,et al.  Effects of margosan-o™, azatin™ and RD9-repelin® on spiders, and on predacious and phytophagous mites , 1993, Phytoparasitica.

[156]  F. Samu,et al.  Spider orb web as bioassay for pesticide side effects , 1992 .

[157]  E. Heinrichs.  Biology and management of rice insects. , 1994 .

[158]  S. Marshall,et al.  ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF AGRICULTURAL HABITATS AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE SPIDER INHABITANTS , 1999 .

[159]  J. Stark,et al.  Analytical Techniques for Quantifying Direct, Residual, and Oral Exposure of an Insect Parasitoid to an Organophosphate Insecticide , 1996, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[160]  Kong Luen Heong,et al.  Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on Herbivores and Its Stimulation to Major Insect Pests in Rice , 2007 .

[161]  C. Hodgson,et al.  Effect of Aphis gossypii Glover, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.), and Megoura viciae Buckton (Hemiptera: Aphidoidea) on the development of the predator Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) , 2004 .

[162]  R. Singh,et al.  Behavioral and Physiological Effects of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Seed Kernel Extracts on Larval Parasitoid, Bracon hebetor , 1998, Journal of Chemical Ecology.

[163]  T. New.  The biology of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera), with reference to their usage as biocontrol agents: a review , 2009 .

[164]  B. Sauphanor,et al.  Results of the seventh joint pesticide testing programme carried out by the IOBC/WPRS-Working Group ‘Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms’ , 2004, BioControl.

[165]  L. Mahajan,et al.  Residual toxicity of some pesticides used in cotton pest management against a chrysopid, (C. carnea). , 2000 .

[166]  M. Nyffeler.  Field studies on the ecological role of the spiders as insect predators in agroecosystems (abandoned grassland, meadows, and cereal fields) , 1984 .

[167]  W. Fairbrother,et al.  Compounds in the droplets of the orb spider's viscid spiral , 1990, Nature.

[168]  M. Kaethner.  Keine Nebenwirkungen von Niempräparaten auf die aphidophagen PrädatorenChrysoperla carnea (Steph.) undCoccinella septempunctata L. , 1991, Anzeiger für Schädlingskunde, Pflanzenschutz, Umweltschutz.

[169]  Ezio Venturino,et al.  Biological controls of intensive agroecosystems: Wanderer spiders in the Langa Astigiana , 2008 .

[170]  J. Perry,et al.  The impact of dimethoate on the spatial distribution of beneficial arthropods in winter wheat. , 2000 .

[171]  J. Waage,et al.  Trichogramma and other egg parasites. , 1988 .

[172]  P. Jepson,et al.  Sub‐lethal effects of deltamethrin residues on the within‐crop behaviour and distribution of Coccinella septempunctata , 1994 .

[173]  M. F. El‐Shaarawy,et al.  Release of two predators and two parasitoids to control aphids and whiteflies , 1999, Anzeiger für Schädlingskunde = Journal of pest science.

[174]  F. Bigler,et al.  Results of the third joint pesticide testing programme by the IOBC/WPRS‐Working Group “Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms” 1 , 1987 .

[175]  B. Croft,et al.  Pesticide side-effects on arthropod natural enemies: A database summary , 1988 .

[176]  R. Singh,et al.  Biological Effects of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Seed Oil on an Egg Parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis , 1999 .

[177]  N. Mikul'skaya.  Influence of biological preparations on entomophages. , 2000 .

[178]  S. Dhingra.  Effect of some important insecticides on the adults of Coccinella septempunctata Linn. predating on different aphid species , 1999 .

[179]  A. Canard,et al.  Maintaining spider biodiversity in agroecosystems as a tool in pest control , 1997 .

[180]  H. Schmutterer.  The neem tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and other meliaceous plants: sources of unique natural products for integrated pest management, medicine, industry and other purposes. , 2005 .

[181]  J. Mulrooney,et al.  Effect of Selected Insecticides on the Natural Enemies Coleomegilla maculata and Hippodamia convergens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Geocoris punctipes (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), and Bracon mellitor, Cardiochiles nigriceps, and Cotesia marginiventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in Cotton , 2000, Journal of economic entomology.

[182]  B. L. Meena,et al.  Efficacy of some insecticides against lady bird beetle, Coccinella septumpunctata Linn. feeding on fenugreek aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) , 2002 .

[183]  E. Viñuela,et al.  Effects of three modern insecticides, pyriproxyfen, spinosad and tebufenozide, on survival and reproduction of Chrysoperla carnea adults , 2003 .

[184]  J. Stark,et al.  Survival, Longevity, and Reproduction of Tephritid Fruit Fly Parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Reared from Fruit Flies Exposed to Azadirachtin , 1992 .

[185]  R. Cloyd,et al.  Compatibility of Three Miticides with the Predatory Mites Neoseiulus californicus McGregor and Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae) , 2006 .

[186]  S. Kawamura,et al.  Effects of Various Insecticides on the Development of the Egg Parasitoid Trichogramma dendrolimi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) , 2001, Journal of economic entomology.

[187]  B. Croft,et al.  Life-styles of Phytoseiid mites and their roles in biological control. , 1997, Annual review of entomology.

[188]  K. Ascher,et al.  Toxicity of neem (Azadirachta Indica) seed kernel extracts prepared with different solvents, on the spider chiracanthium mildei , 1986, Phytoparasitica.

[189]  G. Niemi,et al.  Community Ecology , 2013 .

[190]  P. R. Reis,et al.  Side-effects of insecticides used in tomato fields on Trichogramma pretiosum (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae). , 2003 .

[191]  C. Laub,et al.  Winter Cover Crop Suppression Practices and Natural Enemies of Armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in No-Till Corn , 1992 .

[192]  O. Koul,et al.  Neem: Today and in the New Millennium , 2004, Springer Netherlands.

[193]  M. Zalucki,et al.  Effectiveness of brown planthopper predators: Population suppression by two species of spider, Pardosa pseudoannulata (Araneae, Lycosidae) and Araneus inustus (Araneae, Araneidae) , 2001 .

[194]  P. Mcewen,et al.  Lacewings in the Crop Environment: The use of lacewings in biological control , 2001 .

[195]  M. Isman,et al.  Toxicity of neem to natural enemies of aphids , 1995, Phytoparasitica.

[196]  A. Pozzebon,et al.  Predatory mite population dynamics in vineyards: the role of alternative foods. , 2005 .

[197]  S. Trdan.  Insecticides Development Of Safer And More Effective Technologies , 2014 .

[198]  V. Markandeya,et al.  Effect of a neem formulation on four bioagents. , 1999 .

[199]  M. Nyffeler,et al.  Diets, feeding specialization, and predatory role of two lynx spiders, Oxyopes salticus and Peucetia viridans (Araneae: Oxyopidae), in a Texas cotton agroecosystem , 1992 .

[200]  John R. Ruberson,et al.  Pesticides and conservation of natural enemies in pest management , 1998 .

[201]  J. H. Stevenson,et al.  The secretion of the systemic insecticides dimethoate and phorate into nectar. , 1968, Annals of Applied Biology.