Nanophotosensitizers toward advanced photodynamic therapy of Cancer.

UNLABELLED Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive treatment modality for selective destruction of cancer and other diseases and involves the colocalization of light, oxygen, and a photosensitizer (PS) to achieve photocytotoxicity. Although this therapeutic method has considerably improved the quality of life and life expectancy of cancer patients, further advances in selectivity and therapeutic efficacy are required to overcome numerous side effects related to classical PDT. The application of nanoscale photosensitizers (NPSs) comprising molecular PSs and nanocarriers with or without other biological/photophysical functions is a promising approach for improving PDT. In this review, we focus on four nanomedical approaches for advanced PDT: (1) nanocarriers for targeted delivery of PS, (2) introduction of active targeting moieties for disease-specific PDT, (3) stimulus-responsive NPSs for selective PDT, and (4) photophysical improvements in NPS for enhanced PDT efficacy. HIGHLIGHTS ► Conservation of normal tissues demands non-invasive therapeutic methods. ► PDT is a light-activated, non-invasive modality for selective destruction of cancers.► Success of PDT requires further advances to overcome the limitations of classical PDT. ►Nanophotosensitizers help improve target selectivity and therapeutic efficacy of PDT.

[1]  Raoul Kopelman,et al.  Multifunctional nanoparticle platforms for in vivo MRI enhancement and photodynamic therapy of a rat brain cancer , 2005 .

[2]  R. Gurny,et al.  Preparation and characterization of sterile sub-200 nm meso-tetra(4-hydroxylphenyl)porphyrin-loaded nanoparticles for photodynamic therapy. , 2003, European journal of pharmaceutics and biopharmaceutics : official journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik e.V.

[3]  N. Russo,et al.  A Theoretical Study of Brominated Porphycenes: Electronic Spectra and Intersystem Spin-Orbit Coupling. , 2010, Journal of chemical theory and computation.

[4]  Mark D. Savellano,et al.  Epidermal growth factor receptor-targeted photosensitizer selectively inhibits EGFR signaling and induces targeted phototoxicity in ovarian cancer cells. , 2012, Cancer letters.

[5]  Peter Alken,et al.  High intensity focused ultrasound as noninvasive therapy for multilocal renal cell carcinoma: case study and review of the literature. , 2002, The Journal of urology.

[6]  R. Gurny,et al.  Tailoring protease-sensitive photodynamic agents to specific disease-associated enzymes. , 2007, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[7]  J. Moan,et al.  On the diffusion length of singlet oxygen in cells and tissues , 1990 .

[8]  Laurence Raehm,et al.  Hyaluronic acid-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles for efficient photodynamic therapy of cancer cells. , 2012, Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy.

[9]  R. Granet,et al.  RGD‐Porphyrin Conjugates: Synthesis and Potential Application in Photodynamic Therapy , 2003 .

[10]  N. Oku,et al.  Antiangiogenic photodynamic therapy (PDT) by using long-circulating liposomes modified with peptide specific to angiogenic vessels. , 2005, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[11]  I. Larson,et al.  Electrokinetic and Direct Force Measurements between Silica and Mica Surfaces in Dilute Electrolyte Solutions , 1997 .

[12]  Laurence Raehm,et al.  Silica-based nanoparticles for photodynamic therapy applications. , 2010, Nanoscale.

[13]  D. Jans,et al.  Nuclear drug delivery to target tumour cells. , 2009, European journal of pharmacology.

[14]  R. Gurny,et al.  Synergies of VEGF inhibition and photodynamic therapy in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. , 2007, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[15]  B. Wilson,et al.  Photodynamic molecular beacon as an activatable photosensitizer based on protease-controlled singlet oxygen quenching and activation , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[16]  K. Ohkubo,et al.  In vitro heavy-atom effect of palladium(II) and platinum(II) complexes of pyrrolidine-fused chlorin in photodynamic therapy. , 2009, Journal of medicinal chemistry.

[17]  Yong-Eun Koo Lee,et al.  Methylene blue-conjugated hydrogel nanoparticles and tumor-cell targeted photodynamic therapy. , 2011, Macromolecular bioscience.

[18]  T J Dougherty,et al.  Identification of singlet oxygen as the cytotoxic agent in photoinactivation of a murine tumor. , 1976, Cancer research.

[19]  L. Juillerat-Jeanneret,et al.  Chitosan-based nanogels for selective delivery of photosensitizers to macrophages and improved retention in and therapy of articular joints. , 2010, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[20]  Jingrong Chen,et al.  pH-responsive silica nanoparticles for controllable 1O2 generation , 2010, Nanotechnology.

[21]  Steffen Hackbarth,et al.  Singlet Oxygen Quantum Yields of Different Photosensitizers in Polar Solvents and Micellar Solutions , 1998 .

[22]  Indrajit Roy,et al.  Ceramic-based nanoparticles entrapping water-insoluble photosensitizing anticancer drugs: a novel drug-carrier system for photodynamic therapy. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[23]  M. Alexiades-Armenakas.  Laser-mediated photodynamic therapy. , 2006, Clinics in dermatology.

[24]  P. Couvreur,et al.  Design of folic acid-conjugated nanoparticles for drug targeting. , 2000, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[25]  D. Fisher,et al.  Polyethylene glycol modification: relevance of improved methodology to tumour targeting. , 1996, Journal of drug targeting.

[26]  M. DeRosa.  Photosensitized singlet oxygen and its applications , 2002 .

[27]  M. Ferrari.  Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges , 2005, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[28]  D. Xing,et al.  Pyropheophorbide A and c(RGDyK) comodified chitosan-wrapped upconversion nanoparticle for targeted near-infrared photodynamic therapy. , 2012, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[29]  F. Guillemin,et al.  A peptide competing with VEGF165 binding on neuropilin-1 mediates targeting of a chlorin-type photosensitizer and potentiates its photodynamic activity in human endothelial cells. , 2006, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[30]  Eun Seong Lee,et al.  A smart polysaccharide/drug conjugate for photodynamic therapy. , 2011, Angewandte Chemie.

[31]  Britton Chance,et al.  Protease-triggered photosensitizing beacon based on singlet oxygen quenching and activation. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[32]  J. Reynolds,et al.  Nanodrug applications in photodynamic therapy. , 2011, Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy.

[33]  J. B. Birks,et al.  Photophysics of aromatic molecules , 1970 .

[34]  V. Torchilin,et al.  Micellar Nanocarriers: Pharmaceutical Perspectives , 2006, Pharmaceutical Research.

[35]  D Needham,et al.  Repulsive interactions and mechanical stability of polymer-grafted lipid membranes. , 1992, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[36]  Fred Russell Kramer,et al.  Efficiencies of fluorescence resonance energy transfer and contact-mediated quenching in oligonucleotide probes. , 2002, Nucleic acids research.

[37]  I. Kwon,et al.  Heavy-atomic construction of photosensitizer nanoparticles for enhanced photodynamic therapy of cancer. , 2011, Small.

[38]  Q. Peng,et al.  Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-coated thermo-responsive nanoparticles for controlled delivery of sulfonated Zn-phthalocyanine in Chinese hamster ovary cells in vitro and zebra fish in vivo , 2007 .

[39]  Jayanth Panyam,et al.  Rapid endo‐lysosomal escape of poly(DL‐lactide‐coglycolide) nanoparticles: implications for drug and gene delivery , 2002, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[40]  W. Fong,et al.  Phthalocyanine-polyamine conjugates as pH-controlled photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. , 2010, Chemistry.

[41]  Erkki Ruoslahti,et al.  Nucleolin expressed at the cell surface is a marker of endothelial cells in angiogenic blood vessels , 2003, The Journal of cell biology.

[42]  D. A. Russell,et al.  Targeting the oncofetal Thomsen-Friedenreich disaccharide using jacalin-PEG phthalocyanine gold nanoparticles for photodynamic cancer therapy. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[43]  M. Bernstein,et al.  Combining radiation, immunotherapy, and antiangiogenesis agents in the management of cancer: the Three Musketeers or just another quixotic combination? , 2009, Molecular bioSystems.

[44]  Tristan Barrett,et al.  Selective molecular imaging of viable cancer cells with pH-activatable fluorescence probes , 2009, Nature Medicine.

[45]  F. Guillemin,et al.  Interest of RGD-containing linear or cyclic peptide targeted tetraphenylchlorin as novel photosensitizers for selective photodynamic activity. , 2007, Bioorganic chemistry.

[46]  M. Maynadier,et al.  Multifunctionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles for the in vitro treatment of retinoblastoma: Drug delivery, one and two-photon photodynamic therapy. , 2012, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[47]  S. Jayasena.  Aptamers: an emerging class of molecules that rival antibodies in diagnostics. , 1999, Clinical chemistry.

[48]  K. Kataoka,et al.  Block copolymer micelles for drug delivery: design, characterization and biological significance. , 2001, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[49]  Wei Chen,et al.  Using nanoparticles to enable simultaneous radiation and photodynamic therapies for cancer treatment. , 2006, Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

[50]  R K Jain,et al.  Vascular permeability in a human tumor xenograft: molecular size dependence and cutoff size. , 1995, Cancer research.

[51]  A. Gabizon,et al.  Sterically stabilized liposomes: a hypothesis on the molecular origin of the extended circulation times. , 1991, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[52]  P. Blumenthal,et al.  Efficacy, safety, acceptability and affordability of cryotherapy: a review of current literature. , 2012, Minerva ginecologica.

[53]  Shu-Jyuan Yang,et al.  Alginate-folic acid-modified chitosan nanoparticles for photodynamic detection of intestinal neoplasms. , 2011, Biomaterials.

[54]  Eric G. Nickel,et al.  Efficient singlet oxygen generation upon two-photon excitation of new porphyrin with enhanced nonlinear absorption , 2001 .

[55]  J. Gariépy,et al.  Potentiation of chlorin e6 photodynamic activity in vitro with peptide-based intracellular vehicles. , 1999, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[56]  Petras Juzenas,et al.  Quantum dots and nanoparticles for photodynamic and radiation therapies of cancer. , 2008, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[57]  John B. Shoven,et al.  I , Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.

[58]  Zhang Yong,et al.  Upconverting nanoparticles as nanotransducers for photodynamic therapy in cancer cells. , 2008, Nanomedicine.

[59]  T. Tsai,et al.  Improved photodynamic inactivation of gram‐positive bacteria using hematoporphyrin encapsulated in liposomes and micelles , 2009, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[60]  Gonçalo F. F. Sá,et al.  Synthesis and photophysical properties of amphiphilic halogenated bacteriochlorins: new opportunities for photodynamic therapy of cancer , 2009 .

[61]  Shu-Jyuan Yang,et al.  Aptamer-based tumor-targeted drug delivery for photodynamic therapy. , 2010, ACS nano.

[62]  S. McGlynn,et al.  Molecular Spectroscopy of the Triplet State. , 1969 .

[63]  Hongtao Yu,et al.  Enhanced Photodynamic Selectivity of Nano-Silica-Attached Porphyrins Against Breast Cancer Cells. , 2012, Journal of materials chemistry.

[64]  Véronique Préat,et al.  To exploit the tumor microenvironment: Passive and active tumor targeting of nanocarriers for anti-cancer drug delivery. , 2010, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[65]  Kwangmeyung Kim,et al.  Facilitated intracellular delivery of peptide-guided nanoparticles in tumor tissues. , 2012, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[66]  S. Jockusch,et al.  The reaction of singlet oxygen with enecarbamates: a mechanistic playground for investigating chemoselectivity, stereoselectivity, and vibratioselectivity of photooxidations. , 2008, Accounts of chemical research.

[67]  K. Na,et al.  Acetylated hyaluronic acid/photosensitizer conjugate for the preparation of nanogels with controllable phototoxicity: synthesis, characterization, autophotoquenching properties, and in vitro phototoxicity against HeLa cells. , 2010, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[68]  T J Dougherty,et al.  PHOTOSENSITIZERS: THERAPY AND DETECTION OF MALIGNANT TUMORS , 1987, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[69]  C. Burda,et al.  Surface effects on quantum dot-based energy transfer. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[70]  R. Jain,et al.  Photodynamic therapy for cancer , 2003, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[71]  J. Joussot-Dubien,et al.  pH DEPENDENCE OF SINGLET OXYGEN PRODUCTION IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS USING TOLUIDINE BLUE AS A PHOTOSENSITIZER , 1975, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[72]  Hongtao Yu,et al.  Imidazole-modified porphyrin as a pH-responsive sensitizer for cancer photodynamic therapy. , 2011, Chemical communications.

[73]  M. Fadel,et al.  Evaluation of the Photostability and Photodynamic Efficacy of Rose Bengal Loaded in Multivesicular Liposomes , 2011 .

[74]  M. Shieh,et al.  Reduced skin photosensitivity with meta-tetra(hydroxyphenyl)chlorin-loaded micelles based on a poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-b-poly(d,l-lactide) diblock copolymer in vivo. , 2010, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[75]  J. Joussot-Dubien,et al.  pH DEPENDENCE OF SINGLET OXYGEN PRODUCTION IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS USING THIAZINE DYES AS PHOTOSENSITIZERS , 1975, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[76]  R. Weissleder,et al.  A Novel Polyacrylamide Magnetic Nanoparticle Contrast Agent for Molecular Imaging using MRI , 2003 .

[77]  Barbara W. Henderson,et al.  Photodynamic Therapy : Basic Principles and Clinical Applications , 2020 .

[78]  M. Jørgensen,et al.  Effect of sensitizer protonation on singlet oxygen production in aqueous and nonaqueous media. , 2007, The journal of physical chemistry. A.

[79]  M. El-Sayed.  Triplet state. Its radiative and nonradiative properties , 1968 .

[80]  P. Ogilby,et al.  Two-photon photosensitized production of singlet oxygen. , 2001, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[81]  Photosensitizer-incorporated G-quadruplex DNA-functionalized magnetofluorescent nanoparticles for targeted magnetic resonance/fluorescence multimodal imaging and subsequent photodynamic therapy of cancer. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[82]  I. Kwon,et al.  Iodinated photosensitizing chitosan: self-assembly into tumor-homing nanoparticles with enhanced singlet oxygen generation. , 2012, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[83]  Tayyaba Hasan,et al.  Ki-67 as a molecular target for therapy in an in vitro three-dimensional model for ovarian cancer. , 2010, Cancer research.

[84]  W. Tremel,et al.  Highly soluble multifunctional MnO nanoparticles for simultaneous optical and MRI imaging and cancer treatment using photodynamic therapy , 2010 .

[85]  Smita Dayal,et al.  Quantum Dot-based Energy Transfer: Perspectives and Potential for Applications in Photodynamic Therapy , 2006, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[86]  Michael J. Hall,et al.  Supramolecular photonic therapeutic agents. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[87]  R. Weissleder,et al.  Selective antitumor effect of novel protease-mediated photodynamic agent. , 2006, Cancer research.

[88]  G. Robb,et al.  Radiation Therapy and Breast Reconstruction: A Critical Review of the Literature , 2009, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[89]  Maha F. Ali.  Topical delivery and photodynamic evaluation of a multivesicular liposomal Rose Bengal , 2011, Lasers in Medical Science.

[90]  B. Valeur,et al.  Molecular Fluorescence: Principles and Applications , 2001 .

[91]  J. Scaiano,et al.  Photophysical behaviour and photodynamic activity of zinc phthalocyanines associated to liposomes , 2011, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[92]  A. Jen,et al.  Two-photon absorbing block copolymer as a nanocarrier for porphyrin: energy transfer and singlet oxygen generation in micellar aqueous solution. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[93]  Shouwu Guo,et al.  Folic Acid-conjugated Graphene Oxide loaded with Photosensitizers for Targeting Photodynamic Therapy , 2011, Theranostics.

[94]  Roy S Herbst,et al.  Monoclonal antibodies to target epidermal growth factor receptor–positive tumors , 2002, Cancer.

[95]  M. Brewster,et al.  Active and passive tumor targeting of a novel poorly soluble cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor, JNJ-7706621. , 2010, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[96]  J. Lakowicz.  Principles of fluorescence spectroscopy , 1983 .

[97]  Cornelus F. van Nostrum,et al.  Polymeric micelles to deliver photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. , 2004 .

[98]  Thomas J. Dougherty,et al.  Basic principles of photodynamic therapy , 2001 .

[99]  A. Joly,et al.  Investigation of water-soluble x-ray luminescence nanoparticles for photodynamic activation , 2008 .

[100]  G. Zheng,et al.  Liposomal nanostructures for photosensitizer delivery , 2011, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[101]  M. Barberi-Heyob,et al.  Modulation of photosensitization processes for an improved targeted photodynamic therapy. , 2010, Current medicinal chemistry.

[102]  Ian Walker,et al.  In vivo and in vitro characterisation of a protoporphyrin IX-cyclic RGD peptide conjugate for use in photodynamic therapy , 2008, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[103]  Robert Gurny,et al.  Enhanced photodynamic activity of meso-tetra(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin by incorporation into sub-200 nm nanoparticles. , 2003, European journal of pharmaceutical sciences : official journal of the European Federation for Pharmaceutical Sciences.

[104]  D. Guyer,et al.  Pegaptanib, a targeted anti-VEGF aptamer for ocular vascular disease , 2006, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.

[105]  James F. Leary,et al.  Tumor-targeting hyaluronic acid nanoparticles for photodynamic imaging and therapy. , 2012, Biomaterials.

[106]  O. Jacquet,et al.  Titelbild: A Diagonal Approach to Chemical Recycling of Carbon Dioxide: Organocatalytic Transformation for the Reductive Functionalization of CO2 (Angew. Chem. 1/2012) , 2012 .

[107]  A. S. Sobolev,et al.  Nuclear Targeting of Chlorin e6 Enhances Its Photosensitizing Activity* , 1997, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[108]  A. Pawlak,et al.  The microenvironment effect on the generation of reactive oxygen species by Pd-bacteriopheophorbide. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[109]  T. Nyokong,et al.  Photoinduced energy transfer between water-soluble CdTe quantum dots and aluminium tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine , 2008 .

[110]  William M Gallagher,et al.  In vitro demonstration of the heavy-atom effect for photodynamic therapy. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[111]  J. V. van Lier,et al.  Targeted photodynamic therapy via receptor mediated delivery systems. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[112]  Clinton F Jones,et al.  In vitro assessments of nanomaterial toxicity. , 2009, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[113]  D. Heron,et al.  Stereotactic body radiation therapy for adrenal metastases: a retrospective review of a noninvasive therapeutic strategy. , 2011, Future oncology.

[114]  Zivile Luksiene,et al.  Photodynamic therapy: mechanism of action and ways to improve the efficiency of treatment. , 2003, Medicina.

[115]  J. Moan,et al.  Immunotherapy: a way to improve the therapeutic outcome of photodynamic therapy? , 2008, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[116]  Y. Urano,et al.  Highly efficient and photostable photosensitizer based on BODIPY chromophore. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[117]  Yongdoo Choi,et al.  Photosensitizer-Conjugated Gold Nanorods for Enzyme-Activatable Fluorescence Imaging and Photodynamic Therapy , 2012, Theranostics.

[118]  R. Weissleder,et al.  Protease‐Mediated Phototoxicity of a Polylysine–Chlorine6 Conjugate , 2006, ChemMedChem.

[119]  Chuanbin Mao,et al.  Architectonics of Phage-Liposome Nanowebs as Optimized Photosensitizer Vehicles for Photodynamic Cancer Therapy , 2010, Molecular Cancer Therapeutics.

[120]  K. Na,et al.  The controlled photoactivity of nanoparticles derived from ionic interactions between a water soluble polymeric photosensitizer and polysaccharide quencher. , 2011, Biomaterials.

[121]  Paras N. Prasad,et al.  Introduction to Biophotonics , 2003 .

[122]  R. Boyle,et al.  Photosensitiser—antibody conjugates for photodynamic therapy , 2011, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[123]  C. B. Nielsen,et al.  Two-photon photosensitized production of singlet oxygen: sensitizers with phenylene-ethynylene-based chromophores. , 2005, The Journal of organic chemistry.

[124]  M. Blanchard‐Desce,et al.  Synthesis and Characterization of Fluorescently Doped Mesoporous Nanoparticles for Two-Photon Excitation , 2008 .

[125]  M. Laranjo,et al.  In Vitro Photodynamic Activity of 5,15‐bis(3‐Hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin and Its Halogenated Derivatives Against Cancer Cells , 2010, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[126]  Á. Villanueva,et al.  A comparison between the photophysical and photosensitising properties of tetraphenyl porphycenes and porphyrins , 2005 .

[127]  R. Weissleder,et al.  Fluorescence imaging with near-infrared light: new technological advances that enable in vivo molecular imaging , 2002, European Radiology.

[128]  Zhiyu Qian,et al.  Amphiphilic chitosan modified upconversion nanoparticles for in vivo photodynamic therapy induced by near-infrared light , 2012 .

[129]  N. Turro.  Modern Molecular Photochemistry , 1978 .

[130]  Igor L. Medintz,et al.  Quantum dot-based resonance energy transfer and its growing application in biology. , 2009, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[131]  Tayyaba Hasan,et al.  Imaging and photodynamic therapy: mechanisms, monitoring, and optimization. , 2010, Chemical reviews.

[132]  Paras N Prasad,et al.  Organically modified silica nanoparticles co-encapsulating photosensitizing drug and aggregation-enhanced two-photon absorbing fluorescent dye aggregates for two-photon photodynamic therapy. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[133]  Yong-Eun Koo Lee,et al.  Multifunctional biodegradable polyacrylamide nanocarriers for cancer theranostics--a "see and treat" strategy. , 2012, ACS nano.

[134]  Tymish Y. Ohulchanskyy,et al.  Organically Modified Silica Nanoparticles with Intraparticle Heavy-Atom Effect on the Encapsulated Photosensitizer for Enhanced Efficacy of Photodynamic Therapy. , 2009, The journal of physical chemistry. C, Nanomaterials and interfaces.

[135]  Claudio H. Sibata,et al.  Oncologic photodynamic therapy photosensitizers: a clinical review. , 2010, Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy.

[136]  S. Nie,et al.  Targeted magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for tumor imaging and therapy , 2008, International journal of nanomedicine.

[137]  Gang Zheng,et al.  Activatable photosensitizers for imaging and therapy. , 2010, Chemical reviews.

[138]  François Guillemin,et al.  Nanoparticles as vehicles for delivery of photodynamic therapy agents. , 2008, Trends in biotechnology.

[139]  K. Na,et al.  Self-quenching polysaccharide-based nanogels of pullulan/folate-photosensitizer conjugates for photodynamic therapy. , 2010, Biomaterials.

[140]  Justin Jang Hann Chu,et al.  Photodynamic inactivation of viruses using upconversion nanoparticles. , 2012, Biomaterials.

[141]  Nino Russo,et al.  First-principle time-dependent study of magnesium-containing porphyrin-like compounds potentially useful for their application in photodynamic therapy. , 2008, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[142]  Mikkel Jørgensen,et al.  Two-photon photosensitized production of singlet oxygen in water. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[143]  B. Ross,et al.  Photonic explorers based on multifunctional nanoplatforms for biosensing and photodynamic therapy , 2007 .

[144]  B. K. Mishra,et al.  Organically modified silica: synthesis and applications due to its surface interaction with organic molecules. , 2008, Advances in colloid and interface science.

[145]  Yong Zhang,et al.  Nanoparticles in photodynamic therapy: an emerging paradigm. , 2008, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[146]  E. A. Wachter,et al.  Simultaneous Two‐Photon Activation of Type‐I Photodynamic Therapy Agents , 1997, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[147]  Q. Peng,et al.  Photodynamic Therapy , 1988, Methods in Molecular Biology.

[148]  Raoul Kopelman,et al.  Vascular Targeted Nanoparticles for Imaging and Treatment of Brain Tumors , 2006, Clinical Cancer Research.

[149]  Scott C. Brown,et al.  Nanoparticles for bioimaging. , 2006, Advances in colloid and interface science.

[150]  H. Maeda,et al.  Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: a review. , 2000, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[151]  Nancy L Oleinick,et al.  The role of apoptosis in response to photodynamic therapy: what, where, why, and how , 2002, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[152]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[153]  Shimon Weiss,et al.  Singlet oxygen production by Peptide-coated quantum dot-photosensitizer conjugates. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[154]  I. Dékány,et al.  Adsorption of dodecyl pyridinium chloride on monodisperse porous silica. , 1998 .

[155]  J. Woodhams,et al.  Improved in vivo delivery of m-THPC via pegylated liposomes for use in photodynamic therapy. , 2012, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[156]  A. Griffioen,et al.  Angiogenesis inhibition for the improvement of photodynamic therapy: the revival of a promising idea. , 2012, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[157]  S. Crouzet,et al.  High‐intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for definitive treatment of prostate cancer , 2012, BJU international.

[158]  Theresa M Allen,et al.  Rate of biodistribution of STEALTH liposomes to tumor and skin: influence of liposome diameter and implications for toxicity and therapeutic activity. , 2003, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[159]  Aleksander Rebane,et al.  Enhancement of two-photon absorption in tetrapyrrolic compounds , 2003 .

[160]  Klara Stefflova,et al.  Photodynamic molecular beacon triggered by fibroblast activation protein on cancer-associated fibroblasts for diagnosis and treatment of epithelial cancers. , 2009, Journal of medicinal chemistry.

[161]  A. Tedesco,et al.  Photodynamic therapy disinfection of carious tissue mediated by aluminum-chloride-phthalocyanine entrapped in cationic liposomes: an in vitro and clinical study , 2012, Lasers in Medical Science.

[162]  P. D. de Witte,et al.  Liposomes for photodynamic therapy. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[163]  F. Guillemin,et al.  Peptide-conjugated chlorin-type photosensitizer binds neuropilin-1 in vitro and in vivo. , 2009, Journal of photochemistry and photobiology. B, Biology.

[164]  A. Bugaj.  Targeted photodynamic therapy — a promising strategy of tumor treatment , 2011, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[165]  Y. Hagiya,et al.  Current states and future views in photodynamic therapy , 2011 .

[166]  P. Bates,et al.  A new paradigm for aptamer therapeutic AS1411 action: uptake by macropinocytosis and its stimulation by a nucleolin-dependent mechanism. , 2010, Cancer research.

[167]  C H Sibata,et al.  Bio-nanotechnology and photodynamic therapy--state of the art review. , 2008, Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy.

[168]  Manoj Kumar,et al.  Versatile photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy at infrared excitation. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[169]  C. Bertozzi,et al.  Glycans in cancer and inflammation — potential for therapeutics and diagnostics , 2005, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.

[170]  Tymish Y. Ohulchanskyy,et al.  Heteroatom Substitution Induced Changes in Excited-State Photophysics and Singlet Oxygen Generation in Chalcogenoxanthylium Dyes: Effect of Sulfur and Selenium Substitutions† , 2004 .

[171]  Bradley D. Smith,et al.  Singlet oxygen generation using iodinated squaraine and squaraine-rotaxane dyes. , 2007, New journal of chemistry = Nouveau journal de chimie.

[172]  Adela C. Bonoiu,et al.  Aggregation‐Enhanced Fluorescence in Organically Modified Silica Nanoparticles: A Novel Approach toward High‐Signal‐Output Nanoprobes for Two‐Photon Fluorescence Bioimaging , 2007 .

[173]  Zhuang Liu,et al.  Near-infrared light induced in vivo photodynamic therapy of cancer based on upconversion nanoparticles. , 2011, Biomaterials.