A Fitts' law study of pupil dilations in a head-mounted display

Head-mounted displays offer full control over lighting conditions. When equipped with eye tracking technology, they are well suited for experiments investigating pupil dilation in response to cognitive tasks, emotional stimuli, and motor task complexity, particularly for studies that would otherwise have required the use of a chinrest, since the eye cameras are fixed with respect to the head. This paper analyses pupil dilations for 13 out of 27 participants completing a Fitts' law task using a virtual reality headset with built-in eye tracking. The largest pupil dilation occurred for the condition subjectively rated as requiring the most physical and mental effort. Fitts' index of difficulty had no significant effect on pupil dilation, suggesting differences in motor task complexity may not affect pupil dilation.

[1]  Peter Robinson,et al.  Cursor measures for motion-impaired computer users , 2002, ASSETS.

[2]  Andrew Neal,et al.  The effect of motor task precision on pupil diameter. , 2017, Applied ergonomics.

[3]  Martin Grund,et al.  Move it there, or not?: the design of voice commands for gaze with speech , 2012, Gaze-In '12.

[4]  E. Hess,et al.  Pupil Size in Relation to Mental Activity during Simple Problem-Solving , 1964, Science.

[5]  I. Scott MacKenzie,et al.  Pointing by gaze, head, and foot in a head-mounted display , 2019, ETRA.

[6]  John Magee,et al.  Comparison of Two Methods to Control the Mouse Using a Keypad , 2016, ICCHP.

[7]  Brian P. Bailey,et al.  Categories & Subject Descriptors: H.5.2 [Information , 2022 .

[8]  Cristina Manresa-Yee,et al.  Head-tracking interfaces on mobile devices: Evaluation using Fitts' law and a new multi-directional corner task for small displays , 2018, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[9]  P. M. Grant,et al.  Development of a wheelchair virtual reality platform for use in evaluating wheelchair access , 2000 .

[10]  Kathryn Ziegler-Graham,et al.  Estimating the prevalence of limb loss in the United States: 2005 to 2050. , 2008, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[11]  Manfred Tscheligi,et al.  CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 2004, CHI 2004.

[12]  石原 忍.  Tests for Colour-Blindness , 1910, Nature.

[13]  M. Narayanan,et al.  Virtual reality applications , 1994, Proceedings of WESCON '94.

[14]  Jacob O. Wobbrock,et al.  Slide rule: making mobile touch screens accessible to blind people using multi-touch interaction techniques , 2008, Assets '08.

[15]  Ketan Patel,et al.  Augmented and virtual reality in surgery-the digital surgical environment: applications, limitations and legal pitfalls. , 2016, Annals of translational medicine.

[16]  M. Stella Atkins,et al.  Pupil dilations during target-pointing respect Fitts' law , 2014, ETRA.

[17]  M. Kempton,et al.  Virtual reality in the psychological treatment for mental health problems: An systematic review of recent evidence , 2016, Psychiatry Research.

[18]  G. Pearson,et al.  Of moles and men: the design of foot controls for workstations , 1986, CHI '86.

[19]  J. Beatty,et al.  Pupillary dilations in movement preparation and execution. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[20]  Robert F. Stanners,et al.  The pupillary response as an indicator of arousal and cognition , 1979 .

[21]  Benjamin B. Bederson,et al.  Multi-modal text entry and selection on a mobile device , 2010, Graphics Interface.

[22]  Vijay Rajanna,et al.  GAWSCHI: gaze-augmented, wearable-supplemented computer-human interaction , 2016, ETRA.

[23]  Xuan Zhang,et al.  Evaluating Eye Tracking with ISO 9241 - Part 9 , 2007, HCI.

[24]  Andrea Tarallo,et al.  A virtual reality approach for usability assessment: case study on a wheelchair-mounted robot manipulator , 2012, Engineering with Computers.

[25]  J. Beatty.  Task-evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources. , 1982 .

[26]  Antonio Giordano,et al.  Virtual Reality in Health System: Beyond Entertainment. A Mini‐Review on the Efficacy of VR During Cancer Treatment , 2016, Journal of cellular physiology.

[27]  Raimund Dachselt,et al.  Gaze-supported foot interaction in zoomable information spaces , 2013, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[28]  S. Sirois,et al.  Pupillometry , 2012, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[29]  William R. Sherman,et al.  Understanding Virtual RealityInterface, Application, and Design , 2002, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[30]  I. Scott MacKenzie,et al.  Camera Mouse + ClickerAID: Dwell vs. Single-Muscle Click Actuation in Mouse-Replacement Interfaces , 2015, HCI.

[31]  Dieter Kranzlmüller,et al.  ShoeSoleSense: demonstrating a wearable foot interface for locomotion in virtual environments , 2014, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[32]  Robert J. Teather,et al.  Pointing at 3D targets in a stereo head-tracked virtual environment , 2011, 2011 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI).

[33]  Shinjiro Kawato,et al.  Human Factors Evaluation of a Vision-Based Facial Gesture Interface , 2003, 2003 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop.

[34]  D Kahneman,et al.  Pupil Diameter and Load on Memory , 1966, Science.

[35]  I. Scott MacKenzie,et al.  A Fitts' law study of click and dwell interaction by gaze, head and mouse with a head-mounted display , 2018, COGAIN@ETRA.

[36]  Mark R. Mine,et al.  Virtual Environment Interaction Techniques , 1995 .

[37]  J. Beatty,et al.  The pupillary system. , 2000 .

[38]  Peter Robinson,et al.  Developing a methodology for the design of accessible interfaces , 1998 .

[39]  Sang Do Noh,et al.  Virtual reality applications in manufacturing industries: Past research, present findings, and future directions , 2015, Concurr. Eng. Res. Appl..

[40]  Oleg Spakov,et al.  Fast gaze typing with an adjustable dwell time , 2009, CHI.

[41]  Thies Pfeiffer,et al.  Advantages of eye-gaze over head-gaze-based selection in virtual and augmented reality under varying field of views , 2018, COGAIN@ETRA.

[42]  M. Stella Atkins,et al.  Pupil responses to continuous aiming movements , 2015, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[43]  Jason Alexander,et al.  The Feet in Human--Computer Interaction , 2015, ACM Comput. Surv..

[44]  Vijay Rajanna.  Gaze Typing Through Foot-Operated Wearable Device , 2016, ASSETS.

[45]  P. Fitts.  The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. , 1954, Journal of experimental psychology.

[46]  Michela Ott,et al.  A LITERATURE REVIEW ON IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL REALITY IN EDUCATION: STATE OF THE ART AND PERSPECTIVES. , 2015, 11th International Conference eLearning and Software for Education.

[47]  Jennifer C Cornman,et al.  Trends in the use of assistive technology and personal care for late-life disability, 1992-2001. , 2006, The Gerontologist.

[48]  John Paulin Hansen,et al.  Gaze typing in virtual reality: impact of keyboard design, selection method, and motion , 2018, ETRA.

[49]  I. Scott MacKenzie,et al.  Towards a standard for pointing device evaluation, perspectives on 27 years of Fitts' law research in HCI , 2004, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[50]  Päivi Majaranta,et al.  Gaze Interaction and Applications of Eye Tracking - Advances in Assistive Technologies , 2011 .

[51]  Gerd Bruder,et al.  Analysis of direct selection in head-mounted display environments , 2014, 2014 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI).

[52]  I. Scott MacKenzie,et al.  Extending Fitts' law to two-dimensional tasks , 1992, CHI.

[53]  Norbert Elkmann,et al.  GazeTap: towards hands-free interaction in the operating room , 2017, ICMI.

[54]  Robert J. Teather,et al.  The eyes don't have it: an empirical comparison of head-based and eye-based selection in virtual reality , 2017, SUI.