Phenotypic similarity and the evolutionary significance of countergradient variation.

Countergradient variation is a geographical pattern of genotypes (with respect to environments) in which genetic influences on a trait oppose environmental influences, thereby minimizing phenotypic change along the gradient. Phenotypic similarity across changing environments ought to be of intense interest because it belies considerable genotypic change. When it occurs in characters that are positively associated with fitness, countergradient variation conflicts with the hypothesis that local adaptation to one environment trades off against performance in another environment. Cases of countergradient variation therefore offer unique insight into the mechanisms that produce and maintain phenotypic similarity and/or differences along environmental gradients.

[1]  J. Levinton,et al.  Latitudinal Differentiation in Copepod Growth: An Adaptation to Temperature , 1985 .

[2]  Peter Calow,et al.  Homeostasis and Fitness , 1982, The American Naturalist.

[3]  S. Scheiner.  Genetics and Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity , 1993 .

[4]  G. R. Smith,et al.  Elevational variation of growth rates in neonate Sceloporus jarrovi: an experimental evaluation , 1994 .

[5]  D. E. Gill,et al.  COUNTERGRADIENT SELECTION IN THE GREEN FROG, RANA CLAMITANS , 1979, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[6]  E. Murphy.  BERGMANN'S RULE, SEASONALITY, AND GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN BODY SIZE OF HOUSE SPARROWS , 1985, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[7]  A. Cossins,et al.  Temperature Biology of Animals , 1987 .

[8]  F. Chapin,et al.  Ecotypic differentiation of growth processes in Carex aquatilis along latitudinal and local gradients. , 1981 .

[9]  F. Chapin,et al.  Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Phosphate Absorption by Carex Aquatilis Ecotypes along Latitudinal and Local Environmental Gradients , 1983 .

[10]  A. Clarke,et al.  Seasonal acclimatization and latitudinal compensation in metabolism: do they exist? , 1993 .

[11]  J. Levinton,et al.  THE LATITUDINAL COMPENSATION HYPOTHESIS: GROWTH DATA AND A MODEL OF LATITUDINAL GROWTH DIFFERENTIATION BASED UPON ENERGY BUDGETS. II. INTRASPECIFIC COMPARISONS BETWEEN SUBSPECIES OF OPHRYOTROCHA PUERILIS (POLYCHAETA: DORVILLEIDAE). , 1983, The Biological bulletin.

[12]  T. McNeilly,et al.  Population variation in Spartina anglica C. E. Hubbard , 1991 .

[13]  T. McNeilly,et al.  Population variation in Spartina anglica C. E. Hubbard. I, Evidence from a common garden experiment , 1991 .

[14]  G. S. Whitt,et al.  Survival and Growth of Northern, Florida, and Reciprocal Fl Hybrid Largemouth Bass in Central Illinois , 1991 .

[15]  K. Berven,et al.  An analysis of latitudinal variation in the larval development of the Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) , 1991 .

[16]  D. E. Gill,et al.  Interpreting Geographic Variation in Life-History Traits , 1983 .

[17]  J. Thompson,et al.  Phenotypic plasticity as a component of evolutionary change. , 1991, Trends in Ecology & Evolution.

[18]  John E Mittler,et al.  EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION TO TEMPERATURE. I. FITNESS RESPONSES OF ESCHERICHIA COLI TO CHANGES IN ITS THERMAL ENVIRONMENT , 1992, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[19]  K. Berven,et al.  THE GENETIC BASIS OF ALTITUDINAL VARIATION IN THE WOOD FROG RANA SYLVATICA. I. AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF LIFE HISTORY TRAITS , 1982, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[20]  D. Falconer.  Selection in different environments : effects on environmental sensitivity (reaction norm) and on mean performance , 1990 .

[21]  D. Falconer,et al.  Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. , 1962 .

[22]  Mark S. Boyce,et al.  Seasonality, Fasting Endurance, and Body Size in Mammals , 1985, The American Naturalist.

[23]  R. Levins.  Evolution in Changing Environments , 1968 .

[24]  S. Via.  Adaptive Phenotypic Plasticity: Target or By-Product of Selection in a Variable Environment? , 1993, The American Naturalist.

[25]  W. Blanckenhorn.  LIFE‐HISTORY DIFFERENCES IN ADJACENT WATER STRIDER POPULATIONS: PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY OR HERITABLE RESPONSES TO STREAM TEMPERATURE? , 1991, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[26]  D. Conover,et al.  Physiological Basis of Latitudinal Growth Differences in Menidia menidia: Variation in Consumption or Efficiency? , 1992 .

[27]  C. C. Lindsey.  BODY SIZES OF POIKILOTHERM VERTEBRATES AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES , 1966, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[28]  F. Janzen.  An Experimental Analysis of Natural Selection on Body Size of Hatchling Turtles , 1993 .

[29]  V. A. Gerard,et al.  Temperature ecotypes near the southern boundary of the kelp Laminaria saccharina , 1988 .

[30]  D. Conover.  The Relation between Capacity for Growth and Length of Growing Season: Evidence for and Implications of Countergradient Variation , 1990 .

[31]  S. Stancyk.  Reproductive ecology of marine invertebrates , 1979 .

[32]  R. Levins.  Thermal Acclimation and Heat Resistance in Drosophila Species , 1969, The American Naturalist.

[33]  Carl D. Schlichting,et al.  The Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity in Plants , 1986 .

[34]  C. D. Rollo.  A test of the principle of allocation using two sympatric species of cockroaches , 1986 .

[35]  William R. Atchley,et al.  Ontogeny, Timing of Development, and Genetic Variance-Covariances Structure , 1984, The American Naturalist.

[36]  G. Jong,et al.  Population Genetics and Evolution , 1988, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

[37]  D. Conover.  Seasonality and the scheduling of life history at different latitudes , 1992 .

[38]  T. Bullock.  COMPENSATION FOR TEMPERATURE IN THE METABOLISM AND ACTIVITY OF POIKILOTHERMS , 1955 .

[39]  S. Stearns.  Trade-offs in life-history evolution , 1989 .

[40]  Richard E. Lenski,et al.  Rapid evolution in response to high-temperature selection , 1990, Nature.