Trends in the development of environmentally friendly fouling-resistant marine coatings.

'Marine biofouling', the undesired growth of marine organisms such as microorganisms, barnacles and seaweeds on submerged surfaces, is a global problem for maritime industries, with both economic and environmental penalties. The primary strategy for combating marine fouling is to use biocide-containing paints, but environmental concerns and legislation are driving science and technology towards non-biocidal solutions based solely on physico-chemical and materials properties of coatings. Advances in nanotechnology and polymer science, and the development of novel surface designs 'bioinspired' by nature, are expected to have a significant impact on the development of a new generation of environmentally friendly marine coatings.

[1]  Andrew J Scardino,et al.  Mini review: Biomimetic models and bioinspired surfaces for fouling control , 2011, Biofouling.

[2]  V. Paul,et al.  Mini-review: quorum sensing in the marine environment and its relationship to biofouling , 2009, Biofouling.

[3]  Maureen E. Callow,et al.  Preparation and characterisation of silicone-based coatings filled with carbon nanotubes and natural sepiolite and their application as marine fouling-release coatings , 2008, Biofouling.

[4]  J. Callow,et al.  Antifouling character of ‘active’ hybrid xerogel coatings with sequestered catalysts for the activation of hydrogen peroxide , 2009, Biofouling.

[5]  Abraham Marmur.  Adhesion and wetting in an aqueous environment: theoretical assessment of sensitivity to the solid surface energy. , 2004, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[6]  D. Webster,et al.  Influence of solvent composition and degree of reaction on the formation of surface microtopography in a thermoset siloxane–urethane system , 2006 .

[7]  D. N. Williams,et al.  Paint and Coatings Technology for the Control of Marine Fouling , 2010 .

[8]  C. Werner,et al.  Covalent immobilization of Subtilisin A onto thin films of maleic anhydride copolymers. , 2009, Macromolecular bioscience.

[9]  S. E. Thompson,et al.  Combinatorial materials research applied to the development of new surface coatings IX: An investigation of novel antifouling/fouling-release coatings containing quaternary ammonium salt groups , 2008, Biofouling.

[10]  M. Schultz,et al.  Economic impact of biofouling on a naval surface ship , 2011, Biofouling.

[11]  G. Vancso,et al.  Atomic force microscopy of the morphology and mechanical behaviour of barnacle cyprid footprint proteins at the nanoscale , 2010, Journal of The Royal Society Interface.

[12]  J. Callow,et al.  The role of surface energy and water wettability in aminoalkyl/fluorocarbon/hydrocarbon-modified xerogel surfaces in the control of marine biofouling , 2009, Biofouling.

[13]  E. Kramer,et al.  Surface structures of an amphiphilic tri-block copolymer in air and in water probed using sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy. , 2010, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[14]  B. Dunn,et al.  Bioinspired living skins for fouling mitigation , 2009 .

[15]  G. Swain,et al.  Observations of Barnacle Detachment from Silicones using High-Speed Video , 2005 .

[16]  L. A. Smith,et al.  The use of physicochemical methods to detect organic food soils on stainless steel surfaces , 2009, Biofouling.

[17]  M. Hadfield,et al.  Effects of initial surface wettability on biofilm formation and subsequent settlement of Hydroides elegans , 2009, Biofouling.

[18]  M. Hadfield,et al.  Composition and density of bacterial biofilms determine larval settlement of the polychaete Hydroides elegans , 2003 .

[19]  Kim Dam-Johansen,et al.  Reaction rate estimation of controlled-release antifouling paint binders: Rosin-based systems , 2005 .

[20]  C. Hellio,et al.  Settlement Behaviour of Marine Invertebrate Larvae Measured by EthoVision 3.0 , 2004, Biofouling.

[21]  A. Hexemer,et al.  Comparison of the fouling release properties of hydrophobic fluorinated and hydrophilic PEGylated block copolymer surfaces: attachment strength of the diatom Navicula and the green alga Ulva. , 2006, Biomacromolecules.

[22]  Lenora H. Brewer,et al.  Barnacle settlement and the adhesion of protein and diatom microfouling to xerogel films with varying surface energy and water wettability , 2010, Biofouling.

[23]  Zhan Chen,et al.  Structural information of mussel adhesive protein Mefp-3 acquired at various polymer/Mefp-3 solution interfaces. , 2008, Langmuir.

[24]  Richard Wetherbee,et al.  PRIMARY ADHESION OF ENTEROMORPHA (CHLOROPHYTA, ULVALES) PROPAGULES: QUANTITATIVE SETTLEMENT STUDIES AND VIDEO MICROSCOPY 1 , 1997 .

[25]  M. Schultz.  Effects of coating roughness and biofouling on ship resistance and powering , 2007, Biofouling.

[26]  S. Stafslien,et al.  High throughput combinatorial characterization of thermosetting siloxane–urethane coatings having spontaneously formed microtopographical surfaces , 2007 .

[27]  D. Webster,et al.  Preparation of Siloxane−Urethane Coatings Having Spontaneously Formed Stable Biphasic Microtopograpical Surfaces , 2005 .

[28]  Janet M. Carey,et al.  Development of the primary bacterial microfouling layer on antifouling and fouling release coatings in temperate and tropical environments in Eastern Australia , 2009, Biofouling.

[29]  S. E. Thompson,et al.  A preliminary study on the properties and fouling-release performance of siloxane–polyurethane coatings prepared from poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) macromers , 2010, Biofouling.

[30]  Geoffrey Swain,et al.  The use of proactive in-water grooming to improve the performance of ship hull antifouling coatings , 2010, Biofouling.

[31]  B. Liedberg,et al.  Novel application of imaging surface plasmon resonance for in situ studies of the surface exploration of marine organisms , 2009, Biointerphases.

[32]  M. Wahl,et al.  Chemical defence in mussels: antifouling effect of crude extracts of the periostracum of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis , 2006, Biofouling.

[33]  Wen-Yih Chen,et al.  Thermodynamic analysis of the interaction between proteins and solid surfaces: application to liquid chromatography , 2002, Journal of molecular recognition : JMR.

[34]  Sheelagh L. Conlan,et al.  The effects of a serine protease, Alcalase®, on the adhesives of barnacle cyprids (Balanus amphitrite) , 2008, Biofouling.

[35]  K. Thomas,et al.  The environmental fate and effects of antifouling paint biocides , 2010, Biofouling.

[36]  I. L. Singer,et al.  Mechanical factors favoring release from fouling release coatings , 2000, Biofouling.

[37]  J. Waite,et al.  Chemical Subtleties of Mussel and Polychaete Holdfasts , 2006 .

[38]  J. Callow,et al.  Activity of Commercial Enzymes on Settlement and Adhesion of Cypris Larvae of the Barnacle Balanus amphitrite, Spores of the Green Alga Ulva linza, and the Diatom Navicula perminuta , 2004, Biofouling.

[39]  E. Holm,et al.  Factors influencing initial larval settlement: temporal, spatial and surface molecular components , 1991 .

[40]  S. Kjelleberg,et al.  Larval settlement of the common Australian sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma in response to bacteria from the surface of coralline algae , 2006, Oecologia.

[41]  D. Fischer,et al.  Surface Engineering of Styrene/PEGylated-Fluoroalkyl Styrene Block Copolymer Thin Films , 2009 .

[42]  K. Dam-Johansen,et al.  Antifouling technology—past, present and future steps towards efficient and environmentally friendly antifouling coatings , 2004 .

[43]  Anthony S. Clare,et al.  Molecular approaches to nontoxic antifouling , 1992 .

[44]  Frank C. Walsh,et al.  Modern approaches to marine antifouling coatings , 2006 .

[45]  Shaoyi Jiang,et al.  Superlow fouling sulfobetaine and carboxybetaine polymers on glass slides. , 2006, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[46]  H. Dahms,et al.  Inhibition of biofouling by marine microorganisms and their metabolites , 2006, Biofouling.

[47]  A. Brennan,et al.  Non-toxic antifouling strategies , 2010 .

[48]  Abraham Marmur,et al.  Biological and Synthetic Self-Cleaning Surfaces , 2008 .

[49]  C. Werner,et al.  Antifouling potential of Subtilisin A immobilized onto maleic anhydride copolymer thin films , 2009, Biofouling.

[50]  Marvin Y. Paik,et al.  ABC triblock surface active block copolymer with grafted ethoxylated fluoroalkyl amphiphilic side chains for marine antifouling/fouling-release applications. , 2009, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[51]  Shaoyi Jiang,et al.  Modulation of barnacle (Balanus amphitrite Darwin) cyprid settlement behavior by sulfobetaine and carboxybetaine methacrylate polymer coatings , 2010, Biofouling.

[52]  E. Chiellini,et al.  Nanostructured films of amphiphilic fluorinated block copolymers for fouling release application. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[53]  Adam W Feinberg,et al.  Engineered antifouling microtopographies – correlating wettability with cell attachment , 2006, Biofouling.

[54]  Axel Rosenhahn,et al.  The role of "inert" surface chemistry in marine biofouling prevention. , 2010, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[55]  Christopher J. Long,et al.  A model that predicts the attachment behavior of Ulva linza zoospores on surface topography , 2010, Biofouling.

[56]  A. Curtis,et al.  Protein-surface interactions , 2007, Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics.

[57]  R. Wetherbee,et al.  Development of the initial diatom microfouling layer on antifouling and fouling-release surfaces in temperate and tropical Australia , 2009, Biofouling.

[58]  D. J. Cookson,et al.  The role of nano-roughness in antifouling , 2009, Biofouling.

[59]  Geoffrey Swain,et al.  Bioinspiration—the solution for biofouling control? , 2009, Bioinspiration & biomimetics.

[60]  Christopher J. Long,et al.  Engineered nanoforce gradients for inhibition of settlement (attachment) of swimming algal spores. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[61]  J. Callow,et al.  Hybrid xerogel films as novel coatings for antifouling and fouling release , 2005, Biofouling.

[62]  Martin Wahl,et al.  Marine epibiosis. I. Fouling and antifouling: some basic aspects , 1989 .

[63]  A. Hexemer,et al.  Anti-Biofouling Properties of Comb-Like Block Copolymer With Amphiphilic Side-Chains | NIST , 2006 .

[64]  Nick Aldred,et al.  Species-specific engineered antifouling topographies: correlations between the settlement of algal zoospores and barnacle cyprids , 2007, Biofouling.

[65]  Anand Jain,et al.  Biochemical composition of the marine conditioning film: implications for bacterial adhesion , 2009, Biofouling.

[66]  A. Clare,et al.  The adhesive strategies of cyprids and development of barnacle-resistant marine coatings , 2008, Biofouling.

[67]  Shaoyi Jiang,et al.  Polysulfobetaine-grafted surfaces as environmentally benign ultralow fouling marine coatings. , 2009, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[68]  Adam W Feinberg,et al.  Engineered antifouling microtopographies – effect of feature size, geometry, and roughness on settlement of zoospores of the green alga Ulva , 2007, Biofouling.

[69]  Dan Rittschof.  Research on Practical Environmentally Benign Antifouling Coatings , 2010 .

[70]  Mehmet Atlar,et al.  The development of foul-release coatings for seagoing vessels , 2003 .

[71]  Karen L Wooley,et al.  The antifouling and fouling-release performance of hyperbranched fluoropolymer (HBFP)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) composite coatings evaluated by adsorption of biomacromolecules and the green fouling alga Ulva. , 2005, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[72]  Chakravarthy S. Gudipati,et al.  Hyperbranched fluoropolymer and linear poly(ethylene glycol) based amphiphilic crosslinked networks as efficient antifouling coatings: An insight into the surface compositions, topographies, and morphologies , 2004 .

[73]  P. Degée,et al.  CH‐π Interactions as the Driving Force for Silicone‐Based Nanocomposites with Exceptional Properties , 2008 .

[74]  Dong Ha Kim,et al.  Modulation of protein-surface interactions on nanopatterned polymer films. , 2009, Biomacromolecules.

[75]  Shaoyi Jiang,et al.  Ultralow‐Fouling, Functionalizable, and Hydrolyzable Zwitterionic Materials and Their Derivatives for Biological Applications , 2010, Advanced materials.

[76]  R. Nys,et al.  Attachment point theory revisited: the fouling response to a microtextured matrix , 2008, Biofouling.