United Kingdom National Guideline on the Management of the viral hepatitides A, B and C 2015

This guideline is an update of the guideline published in 2008 and, like its previous version, provides guidance for best practice in the diagnosis, management and prevention of viral hepatitis types A, B and C (HAV, HBV and HCV). It is primarily intended for use in UK Genitourinary Medicine (GUM)/Sexual Health settings, but can be applied or adapted for use in other settings where sexually transmitted infection (STI) assessments are undertaken, such as in integrated STI/contraception sexual health services and other specifically commissioned services, including general practice. This guideline is for use by all healthcare professionals (doctors, nurses and health advisers) and for use when dealing with patients who are attending with symptoms that may be attributed to an STI, with concern about STIs, or are requesting screening for STIs. It will also be useful to managers and commissioners of sexual health services in understanding service needs. The purpose of the guideline is to help improve the sexual health of individuals attending sexual health clinics by encouraging high standards of care. The guideline offers recommendations on best practice regarding viral hepatitis for both men and women, including adolescents. The guideline is predominantly based on what a broad range of clinicians believe constitutes reasonable practice, based on best evidence. Evidence is sometimes cited from non-UK sexual health settings and from other settings outside sexual health care where necessary. The recommendations/evidence are graded using the GRADE system (Appendix).

[1]  Peter Schmid,et al.  Understanding early serum hepatitis D virus and hepatitis B surface antigen kinetics during pegylated interferon‐alpha therapy via mathematical modeling , 2014, Hepatology.

[2]  H. Razavi,et al.  Global epidemiology and genotype distribution of the hepatitis C virus infection. , 2014, Journal of hepatology.

[3]  M. Zoli,et al.  Factors that affect efficacy of ultrasound surveillance for early stage hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis. , 2014, Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology : the official clinical practice journal of the American Gastroenterological Association.

[4]  L. Rostaing,et al.  Review: Occult hepatitis C virus infection: Still remains a controversy , 2014, Journal of medical virology.

[5]  R. Geskus,et al.  Stabilizing Incidence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among Men Who Have Sex With Men in Amsterdam , 2014, Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes.

[6]  L. Sticchi,et al.  Hepatitis C virus in the new era: perspectives in epidemiology, prevention, diagnostics and predictors of response to therapy. , 2014, World journal of gastroenterology.

[7]  F. Lert,et al.  Comparison of risk factors in HIV-infected men who have sex with men, coinfected or not with hepatitis C virus (ANRS VESPA2 French cross-sectional national survey) , 2014, Sexually Transmitted Infections.

[8]  V. Soriano,et al.  Management and treatment of chronic hepatitis B in HIV-positive patients , 2014, Annals of medicine.

[9]  A. Burroughs,et al.  Cost-effectiveness of noninvasive liver fibrosis tests for treatment decisions in patients with chronic hepatitis C , 2014, Hepatology.

[10]  A. Flaxman,et al.  Global Distribution and Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Genotypes , 2014, Hepatology.

[11]  Chien-Jen Chen,et al.  Epidemiology and natural history of hepatitis C virus infection. , 2014, World journal of gastroenterology.

[12]  Su-mei Li,et al.  Liver fibrosis evaluation by ARFI and APRI in chronic hepatitis C. , 2014, World journal of gastroenterology.

[13]  Y. Rotman,et al.  Long‐term therapy of chronic delta hepatitis with peginterferon alfa , 2014, Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics.

[14]  H. Stellbrink,et al.  Multiple hepatitis C virus (HCV) reinfections in HIV‐positive men who have sex with men: no influence of HCV genotype switch or interleukin‐28B genotype on spontaneous clearance , 2014, HIV medicine.

[15]  S. Mukherjee,et al.  Antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis C in 2014 , 2014, Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology.

[16]  L. Abu-Raddad,et al.  Vertical Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis , 2014, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[17]  E. Sagnelli,et al.  Acute hepatitis C: A 24‐week course of pegylated interferon alpha‐2b versus a 12‐week course of pegylated interferon alpha‐2b alone or with ribavirin , 2014, Hepatology.

[18]  G. Guzman,et al.  Histological and Clinical Characteristics of Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C and Persistently Normal Alanine Aminotransferase Levels , 2014, Hepatitis research and treatment.

[19]  A. Vedio,et al.  Successful use of Fendrix in HIV-infected non-responders to standard hepatitis B vaccines. , 2014, The Journal of infection.

[20]  A. Localio,et al.  Hepatic Decompensation in Antiretroviral-Treated Patients Co-Infected With HIV and Hepatitis C Virus Compared With Hepatitis C VirusMonoinfected Patients , 2014, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[21]  R. Geskus,et al.  Trends in hepatitis C virus infections among MSM attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic; 1995–2010 , 2014, AIDS.

[22]  E. Sagnelli,et al.  Acute hepatitis C: clinical and laboratory diagnosis, course of the disease, treatment , 2014, Infection.

[23]  V. Lee,et al.  Experience of acute hepatitis C and HIV co-infection in an inner city clinic in the UK , 2014, Journal of the International AIDS Society.

[24]  M. Hellard,et al.  High Rates of Hepatitis C Virus Reinfection and Spontaneous Clearance of Reinfection in People Who Inject Drugs: A Prospective Cohort Study , 2013, PloS one.

[25]  C. Datz,et al.  A diagnostic score for the prediction of spontaneous resolution of acute hepatitis C virus infection. , 2013, Journal of hepatology.

[26]  C. Leen,et al.  British HIV Association guidelines for the management of hepatitis viruses in adults infected with HIV 2013 , 2013, HIV medicine.

[27]  C. Antoniou,et al.  Hepatitis A vaccination and immunological parameters in HIV-infected patients. , 2013, Viral immunology.

[28]  A. Alibrandi,et al.  Impact of occult hepatitis B virus infection on the outcome of chronic hepatitis C. , 2013, Journal of hepatology.

[29]  J. Parry,et al.  Prevalence of, and risk factors for, HIV, hepatitis B and C infections among men who inject image and performance enhancing drugs: a cross-sectional study , 2013, BMJ Open.

[30]  Felipe García,et al.  Factors associated with the immune response to hepatitis A vaccination in HIV-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. , 2013, Vaccine.

[31]  W. Gerlich Medical Virology of Hepatitis B: how it began and where we are now , 2013, Virology Journal.

[32]  Yoshiyuki Suzuki,et al.  Long‐term entecavir treatment reduces hepatocellular carcinoma incidence in patients with hepatitis B virus infection , 2013, Hepatology.

[33]  Priyanka Gupta Hepatitis C Virus and HIV Type 1 Co-Infection , 2013, Infectious disease reports.

[34]  June-Sung Lee,et al.  Window period of anti-hepatitis A virus immunoglobulin M antibodies in diagnosing acute hepatitis A , 2013, European journal of gastroenterology & hepatology.

[35]  A. Flaxman,et al.  Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection: New estimates of age‐specific antibody to HCV seroprevalence , 2013, Hepatology.

[36]  C. Sabin,et al.  Effect of HCV infection on cause-specific mortality after HIV seroconversion, before and after 1997. , 2013, Gastroenterology.

[37]  A. Sullivan,et al.  2012 BASHH statement on partner notification for sexually transmissible infections , 2013, International journal of STD & AIDS.

[38]  W. Kim,et al.  43 LONG TERM TENOFOVIR DISOPROXIL FUMARATE (TDF) THERAPY AND THE RISK OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA , 2013 .

[39]  P. Gautret,et al.  Outbreaks associated to large open air festivals, including music festivals, 1980 to 2012. , 2013, Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin.

[40]  R. Chou,et al.  Reducing Risk for Mother-to-Infant Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus: A Systematic Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force , 2013, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[41]  C. Hoebe,et al.  Revaccination with Fendrix® or HBVaxPro® results in better response rates than does revaccination with three doses of Engerix-B® in previous non-responders. , 2012, Vaccine.

[42]  N. Chavez-Tapia,et al.   Clinical course and management of acute hepatitis A infection in adults. , 2012, Annals of hepatology.

[43]  T. Berg,et al.  The predictive value of IL28B gene polymorphism for spontaneous clearance in a single source outbreak cohort is limited in patients carrying the CCR5Δ32 mutation. , 2011, Journal of hepatology.

[44]  H. Harris,et al.  The impact of mode of acquisition on biological markers of paediatric hepatitis C virus infection , 2011, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[45]  S. Degli Esposti,et al.  Hepatitis B in pregnancy: challenges and treatment. , 2011, Gastroenterology clinics of North America.

[46]  Yong-hua Zhao,et al.  Lamivudine treatment is associated with improved survival in fulminant hepatitis B , 2011, Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver.

[47]  F. Baldelli,et al.  Severe Acute Hepatitis B Treated With Entecavir. , 2011, Mediterranean journal of hematology and infectious diseases.

[48]  M. Fisher Acute hepatitis C in HIV-infected individuals: recommendations from the European AIDS Treatment Network (NEAT) consensus conference. , 2011, AIDS.

[49]  M. Robles,et al.  Impact of Acute Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Infection on HIV Viral Load in HIV-Infected Patients and Influence of HIV Infection on Acute HAV Infection , 2011, Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care.

[50]  R. Majdzadeh,et al.  Long-term protection provided by hepatitis B vaccine and need for booster dose: a meta-analysis. , 2010, Vaccine.

[51]  Hyo‐suk Lee,et al.  Hepatitis A: Clinical Manifestations and Management , 2010, Intervirology.

[52]  R. Coutinho,et al.  Viral hepatitis among men who have sex with men, epidemiology and public health consequences. , 2009, Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin.

[53]  Ryan Stone,et al.  Worry as a window into the lives of people who use injection drugs: a factor analysis approach , 2009, Harm reduction journal.

[54]  F. Allerberger,et al.  Foodborne outbreak of hepatitis A, November 2007–January 2008, Austria , 2009, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases.

[55]  J. Gregory,et al.  Hepatitis a outbreak epidemiologically linked to a food handler in Melbourne, Victoria. , 2009, Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report.

[56]  E. Thomson,et al.  Delayed anti-HCV antibody response in HIV-positive men acutely infected with HCV , 2009, AIDS.

[57]  R. Geskus,et al.  Trends in Hepatitis A, B, and Shigellosis Compared With Gonorrhea and Syphilis in Men Who Have Sex With Men in Amsterdam, 1992–2006 , 2008, Sexually Transmitted Diseases.

[58]  N. Crowcroft,et al.  Outbreaks of hepatitis A in England and Wales associated with two co‐circulating hepatitis A virus strains , 2008, Journal of medical virology.

[59]  M. Pichichero,et al.  Improving vaccine delivery using novel adjuvant systems , 2008, Human vaccines.

[60]  J. Macías,et al.  High prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among noninjecting drug users: association with sharing the inhalation implements of crack , 2008, Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver.

[61]  H. Tillmann,et al.  Telbivudine versus lamivudine in patients with chronic hepatitis B. , 2008, The New England journal of medicine.

[62]  C. Morissette,et al.  Risk of hepatitis C virus transmission through drug preparation equipment: a systematic and methodological review , 2008, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[63]  F. Diaz-Mitoma,et al.  Long-term antibody persistence induced by a combined hepatitis A and B vaccine in children and adolescents. , 2008, Vaccine.

[64]  G. Rezza,et al.  Correlates of hepatitis C virus seropositivity in prison inmates: a meta-analysis , 2008, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health.

[65]  R. Cheung,et al.  Diagnostic markers for hepatitis virus infection. , 2008, Expert opinion on medical diagnostics.

[66]  G. Dusheiko,et al.  Therapeutic strategies in the management of patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. , 2008, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[67]  A. Lok,et al.  Tenofovir monotherapy is effective in hepatitis B patients with antiviral treatment failure to adefovir in the absence of adefovir-resistant mutations. , 2008, Journal of hepatology.

[68]  M. Hussain,et al.  The increasing prevalence of hepatitis delta virus (HDV) infection in South London , 2008, Journal of medical virology.

[69]  G. Fattovich,et al.  Natural history of chronic hepatitis B: special emphasis on disease progression and prognostic factors. , 2008, Journal of hepatology.

[70]  R. D. de Man,et al.  A prospective open study of the efficacy of high-dose recombinant hepatitis B rechallenge vaccination in HIV-infected patients. , 2008, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[71]  E. Gambineri,et al.  Higher risk of hepatitis C virus perinatal transmission from drug user mothers is mediated by peripheral blood mononuclear cell infection , 2008, Journal of medical virology.

[72]  L. Paitoonpong,et al.  Immunological response to hepatitis B vaccination in patients with AIDS and virological response to highly active antiretroviral therapy , 2008, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[73]  N. Stupiansky,et al.  Relations between sexually transmitted infection diagnosis and sexual compulsivity in a community-based sample of men who have sex with men , 2007, Sexually Transmitted Infections.

[74]  William M. Lee,et al.  Acute liver failure: Summary of a workshop , 2007, Hepatology.

[75]  P. Marcellin,et al.  Treatment of hepatitis B e antigen positive chronic hepatitis with telbivudine or adefovir: a randomized trial. , 2007, Annals of internal medicine.

[76]  M. Mondelli,et al.  Hepatitis C virus genotype 1b as a major risk factor associated with hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis: A seventeen‐year prospective cohort study , 2007, Hepatology.

[77]  E Jenny Heathcote,et al.  Antiviral therapy: chronic hepatitis C , 2007, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[78]  M. Gambarin-Gelwan Hepatitis B in pregnancy. , 2007, Clinics in liver disease.

[79]  H. Lamba,et al.  Increasing hepatitis A IgG prevalence rate in men who have sex with men attending a sexual health clinic in London: implications for immunization policy , 2007, International journal of STD & AIDS.

[80]  C. Beyrer,et al.  Vaccine immunogenicity in injecting drug users: a systematic review. , 2007, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[81]  Víctor Agulló Calatayud,et al.  How can hepatitis C be prevented in the long term? , 2007, The International journal on drug policy.

[82]  H. Thomas,et al.  Best practice in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B: a summary of the European Viral Hepatitis Educational Initiative (EVHEI). , 2007, Journal of hepatology.

[83]  R. D. de Man,et al.  Exacerbation of chronic hepatitis B infection after delivery , 2007, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[84]  L. Leibovici,et al.  Lamivudine prevents reactivation of hepatitis B and reduces mortality in immunosuppressed patients: systematic review and meta‐analysis , 2007, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[85]  M. Harris,et al.  Symptomatology and health attitudes of chronic hepatitis B patients in the USA , 2007, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[86]  R. Coutinho,et al.  Full participation in harm reduction programmes is associated with decreased risk for human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus: evidence from the Amsterdam Cohort Studies among drug users , 2007, Addiction.

[87]  A. Celis,et al.  Hepatitis C antibody intraassay correlation: is retest in duplicate necessary? , 2007, Transfusion.

[88]  A. Singal,et al.  Mechanisms of Synergy Between Alcohol and Hepatitis C Virus , 2007, Journal of clinical gastroenterology.

[89]  J. Rodríguez-Baño,et al.  Clinical progression of hepatitis C virus–related chronic liver disease in human immunodeficiency virus–infected patients undergoing highly active antiretroviral therapy , 2007, Hepatology.

[90]  L. Goldani,et al.  Hepatitis C virus (HCV) viremia in HIV‐infected patients without HCV antibodies detectable by third‐generation enzyme immunoassay , 2007, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[91]  Y. Benhamou Hepatitis B in the HIV-Coinfected Patient , 2007, Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes.

[92]  J. Zuckerman Review: hepatitis B immune globulin for prevention of hepatitis B infection , 2007, Journal of medical virology.

[93]  H. Ward,et al.  Update on lymphogranuloma venereum in the United Kingdom , 2007, Sexually Transmitted Infections.

[94]  J. Kaldor,et al.  High rates of sexually transmitted infections in HIV positive homosexual men: data from two community based cohorts , 2007, Sexually Transmitted Infections.

[95]  N. Leung,et al.  Disease progression in Chinese chronic hepatitis C patients with persistently normal alanine aminotransaminase levels , 2007, Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics.

[96]  S. Tortu,et al.  Individual and couple-level risk factors for hepatitis C infection among heterosexual drug users: a multilevel dyadic analysis. , 2007, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[97]  P. van Damme,et al.  Ten-year antibody persistence induced by hepatitis A and B vaccine (Twinrix) in adults. , 2007, Travel medicine and infectious disease.

[98]  Z. Younossi,et al.  Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQL) in Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection , 2007, Digestive Diseases and Sciences.

[99]  R. Pintó,et al.  Molecular epidemiological studies show that hepatitis A virus is endemic among active homosexual men in Europe , 2007, Journal of medical virology.

[100]  M. Kundi New hepatitis B vaccine formulated with an improved adjuvant system , 2007, Expert review of vaccines.

[101]  G. Alexander,et al.  Does the clinical outcome of hepatitis C infection vary with the infecting hepatitis C virus type? , 2007, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[102]  R. Wallace Clinical audit of gastrointestinal conditions occurring among adults with Down syndrome attending a specialist clinic , 2007, Journal of intellectual & developmental disability.

[103]  K. Herck,et al.  A review of the long-term protection after hepatitis A and B vaccination. , 2007 .

[104]  H. Whittle,et al.  Similar long-term vaccine efficacy of two versus three doses of HBV vaccine in early life. , 2007, Vaccine.

[105]  G. Forster,et al.  The use of the super accelerated hepatitis B vaccination regimen in a north London sexual assault referral centre (SARC). , 2007, Journal of forensic and legal medicine.

[106]  F. D. De Rosa,et al.  A short course of pegylated interferon‐α in acute HCV hepatitis , 2007 .

[107]  M. Kundi,et al.  Persistence of seroprotection 10 years after primary hepatitis A vaccination in an unselected study population. , 2007, Vaccine.

[108]  C. Paterson,et al.  Sharps injuries in UK health care: a review of injury rates, viral transmission and potential efficacy of safety devices. , 2006, Occupational medicine.

[109]  M. Van Ranst,et al.  Viral interaction and clinical implications of coinfection of hepatitis C virus with other hepatitis viruses , 2006, European journal of gastroenterology & hepatology.

[110]  M. Manns,et al.  Hepatitis A virus infection suppresses hepatitis C virus replication and may lead to clearance of HCV. , 2006, Journal of hepatology.

[111]  V. Johnson,et al.  Randomized controlled study of tenofovir and adefovir in chronic hepatitis B virus and HIV infection: ACTG A5127 , 2006, Hepatology.

[112]  R. Bruno,et al.  Combination of tenofovir and lamivudine versus tenofovir after lamivudine failure for therapy of hepatitis B in HIV-coinfection , 2006, AIDS.

[113]  D. Prati Transmission of hepatitis C virus by blood transfusions and other medical procedures: a global review. , 2006, Journal of hepatology.

[114]  R. Levine,et al.  Assessment of fibrosis progression in untreated irish women with chronic hepatitis C contracted from immunoglobulin anti-D. , 2006, Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology : the official clinical practice journal of the American Gastroenterological Association.

[115]  N. Wright,et al.  A review of the evidence for the effectiveness of primary prevention interventions for Hepatitis C among injecting drug users , 2006, Harm Reduction Journal.

[116]  W. Ho,et al.  Drug abuse, innate immunity and hepatitis C virus , 2006, Reviews in medical virology.

[117]  E. Schiff,et al.  A treatment algorithm for the management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: an update. , 2006, Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology : the official clinical practice journal of the American Gastroenterological Association.

[118]  S. Sookoian Liver disease during pregnancy: acute viral hepatitis. , 2006, Annals of hepatology.

[119]  M. Colombo,et al.  The natural history of compensated cirrhosis due to hepatitis C virus: A 17‐year cohort study of 214 patients , 2006, Hepatology.

[120]  E. Sagnelli,et al.  Clinical and virological improvement of hepatitis B virus-related or hepatitis C virus-related chronic hepatitis with concomitant hepatitis A virus infection. , 2006, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[121]  A. Folgori,et al.  Hepatitis C virus carriers with persistently normal ALT levels: biological peculiarities and update of the natural history of liver disease at 10 years , 2006, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[122]  R. Harrington,et al.  An outbreak of hepatitis B virus infection among methamphetamine injectors: the role of sharing injection drug equipment. , 2006, Addiction.

[123]  C. Thio Diagnosis, Diagnostic Tests and Monitoring of Hepatitis B Virus in Monoinfected and HIV-Coinfected Patients , 2006, Antiviral therapy.

[124]  E. Elinav,et al.  Acute hepatitis A infection in pregnancy is associated with high rates of gestational complications and preterm labor. , 2006, Gastroenterology.

[125]  S. Lemon,et al.  Hepatitis A virus: From discovery to vaccines , 2006, Hepatology.

[126]  S. Palmer,et al.  Exposure to school children as a risk factor in a community outbreak of hepatitis A in young adults: a case control study , 2005, Epidemiology and Infection.

[127]  N. Andrews,et al.  Survival of a national cohort of hepatitis C virus infected patients, 16 years after exposure , 2005, Epidemiology and Infection.

[128]  W. Powderly,et al.  Undetectable plasma HIV RNA load predicts success after hepatitis B vaccination in HIV-infected persons. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[129]  A MarioCalvo,et al.  Antibody levels and protection after hepatitis B vaccination: Results of a 15-year follow-up , 2005 .

[130]  Morris Sherman1 Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Screening , 2005 .

[131]  A. Barone,et al.  Randomized trial of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in HIV-infected adult patients comparing a standard dose to a double dose. , 2005, Vaccine.

[132]  M. Newell,et al.  When does mother to child transmission of hepatitis C virus occur? , 2005, Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition.

[133]  A. Zanetti,et al.  Lack of Evidence of Sexual Transmission of Hepatitis C among Monogamous Couples: Results of a 10-Year Prospective Follow-Up Study , 2004, American Journal of Gastroenterology.

[134]  W. Stremmel,et al.  Immunogenicity of an accelerated vaccination regime with a combined hepatitis a/b vaccine in patients with chronic hepatitis C. , 2003, Zeitschrift fur Gastroenterologie.

[135]  B. Bell,et al.  Outbreak of hepatitis A among men who have sex with men: implications for hepatitis A vaccination strategies. , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[136]  J. Castilla,et al.  Absence of hepatitis C virus transmission in a prospective cohort of heterosexual serodiscordant couples , 2003, Sexually transmitted infections.

[137]  COST-EFFECTIVENESS IMPLICATIONS OF THE TIMING OF ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY IN HIV-INFECTED ADULTS , 2002 .

[138]  B. Woodruff,et al.  Prevalence of hepatitis virus infections in an institution for persons with developmental disabilities. , 2002, American journal of mental retardation : AJMR.

[139]  J. Ross,et al.  Seroprevalence of hepatitis A immunity in male genitourinary medicine clinic attenders: a case control study of heterosexual and homosexual men , 2002, Sexually transmitted infections.

[140]  V. Arankalle,et al.  Vertical transmission of Hepatitis A , 2002, Indian journal of pediatrics.

[141]  A. Hansell,et al.  An outbreak of hepatitis A among young men associated with having sex in public venues. , 2001, Communicable disease and public health.

[142]  J. Villeneuve,et al.  Fulminant Hepatitis A in Patients with Chronic Liver Disease , 2000, Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique.

[143]  Ding‐Shinn Chen,et al.  Low incidence of hepatitis C virus transmission between spouses: A prospective study , 2000, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[144]  C. Pramoolsinsap Acute hepatitis A and acquired immunity to hepatitis A virus in hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers and in HBV‐ or hepatitis C virus‐related chronic liver diseases in Thailand , 2000, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[145]  B. Robertson,et al.  Excretion of Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) in Adults: Comparison of Immunologic and Molecular Detection Methods and Relationship between HAV Positivity and Infectivity in Tamarins , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[146]  H. Ward,et al.  Risky business: health and safety in the sex industry over a 9 year period. , 1999, Sexually transmitted infections.

[147]  R. Corona,et al.  Lack of evidence for increased risk of hepatitis A infection in homosexual men , 1999, Epidemiology and Infection.

[148]  A. Floreani,et al.  Rate of incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with compensated viral cirrhosis , 1999, Cancer.

[149]  A. Tärnvik,et al.  Booster vaccination with recombinant hepatitis B vaccine four years after priming with one single dose. , 1999, Vaccine.

[150]  D. Carrington,et al.  Outbreak of hepatitis B in an acupuncture clinic. , 1999, Communicable disease and public health.

[151]  J. Löwer,et al.  A new cluster of hepatitis A infection in hemophiliacs traced to a contaminated plasma pool , 1999, Journal of medical virology.

[152]  H. Whittle,et al.  What level of hepatitis B antibody is protective? , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[153]  F. Chang,et al.  Evidence of transmission of hepatitis B virus to spouses from sequence analysis of the viral genome , 1998, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[154]  T. Kutlu,et al.  A case of vertical transmission of hepatitis A virus infection , 1998, Acta paediatrica.

[155]  B. Bell,et al.  Hepatitis A virus infections associated with clotting factor concentrate in the United States , 1998, Transfusion.

[156]  C. Loveday,et al.  Hepatitis B virus infection in patients attending a genitourinary medicine clinic: risk factors and vaccine coverage. , 1998, Sexually transmitted infections.

[157]  J. Kruppenbacher,et al.  Booster immunization of low- and non-responders after a standard three dose hepatitis B vaccine schedule--results of a post-marketing surveillance. , 1997, Vaccine.

[158]  P. Goldwater Randomized, comparative trial of 20 μg vs 40 μg Engerix B vaccine in hepatitis B vaccine non-responders , 1997 .

[159]  H. Yotsuyanagi,et al.  Chronic hepatitis A with persistent viral replication , 1996, Journal of medical virology.

[160]  M. Cramp,et al.  Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and C Virus in Two Institutions Caring for Mentally Handicapped Adults , 1996, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[161]  K. Hyams Risks of chronicity following acute hepatitis B virus infection: a review. , 1995, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[162]  A. Oxman,et al.  Partner notification for sexually transmitted diseases: an overview of the evidence. , 1994, Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique.

[163]  K. Neal,et al.  Risk factors for hepatitis C virus infection. A case-control study of blood donors in the Trent Region (UK) , 1994, Epidemiology and Infection.

[164]  J. Hoofnagle Chronic hepatitis B. , 1990, The New England journal of medicine.

[165]  K. Hyams,et al.  Hepatitis B in a highly active prostitute population: evidence for a low risk of chronic antigenemia. , 1990, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[166]  J. Giesecke,et al.  Heterosexual contact as a major route for transmission of acute hepatitis B among adults. , 1990, The Journal of infection.

[167]  F. di Nola,et al.  [Viral hepatitis and pregnancy]. , 1967, Minerva medica.

[168]  S. H.E.HARRI Survival of a national cohort of hepatitis C virus infected patients , 16 years after exposure , 2012 .

[169]  E. Thomson,et al.  Diagnosing acute hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients: nucleic acid testing compared with antibody and antigen-antibody detecting methods. , 2009, Journal of clinical virology : the official publication of the Pan American Society for Clinical Virology.

[170]  [EASL clinical practice guidelines. Management of chronic hepatitis B]. , 2009, Gastroenterologie clinique et biologique.

[171]  J. Keystone,et al.  The underestimated risk of hepatitis A and hepatitis B: benefits of an accelerated vaccination schedule. , 2008, International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases.

[172]  S. Sauleda,et al.  The changing epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in Europe. , 2008, Journal of hepatology.

[173]  N. Khardori Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses to a Hepatitis B Vaccine Booster 15–18 Years after Neonatal Immunization , 2008 .

[174]  G. Liss,et al.  Telbivudine versus Lamivudine in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B , 2008 .

[175]  F. D. De Rosa,et al.  A short course of pegylated interferon-alpha in acute HCV hepatitis. , 2007, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[176]  B. Connor,et al.  Rapid and sustained immune response against hepatitis A and B achieved with combined vaccine using an accelerated administration schedule. , 2007, Journal of travel medicine.

[177]  P. van Damme,et al.  A review of the long-term protection after hepatitis A and B vaccination. , 2007, Travel medicine and infectious disease.

[178]  R. P. Myers,et al.  Antiviral Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis B , 2007, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[179]  Y. Benhamou Treatment algorithm for chronic hepatitis B in HIV-infected patients. , 2006, Journal of hepatology.

[180]  D. Thabut,et al.  Natural history and predictors of disease severity in chronic hepatitis C. , 2006, Journal of hepatology.

[181]  M. Sherman Hepatocellular carcinoma: epidemiology, risk factors, and screening. , 2005, Seminars in liver disease.

[182]  G. Ippolito,et al.  European recommendations for the management of healthcare workers occupationally exposed to hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus. , 2005, Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin.

[183]  S. Kashiwagi,et al.  Hepatitis C virus infection in institutionalized psychiatric patients: possible role of transmission by razor sharing. , 2000, Digestive diseases and sciences.

[184]  鈴木 智彦 Characterization of hepatitis B virus surface antigen-specific CD4+ T cells in hepatitis B vaccine non-responders , 2000 .

[185]  R. Reintjes,et al.  Outbreak of hepatitis A in Rotterdam associated with visits to 'darkrooms' in gay bars. , 1999, Communicable disease and public health.

[186]  P. Goldwater Randomized, comparative trial of 20 micrograms vs 40 micrograms Engerix B vaccine in hepatitis B vaccine non-responders. , 1997, Vaccine.

[187]  D. Palmović,et al.  Prevention of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in health-care workers after accidental exposure: A comparison of two prophylactic schedules , 1993, Infection.

[188]  H. Margolis,et al.  Worldwide epidemiology of hepatitis A virus infection. , 1993, Journal of hepatology.