REM sleep behavior disorder

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is a parasomnia manifested by vivid, often frightening dreams associated with simple or complex motor behavior during REM sleep. Patients appear to “act out their dreams,” in which the exhibited behaviors mirror the content of the dreams, and the dream content often involves a chasing or attacking theme. The polysomnographic features of RBD include increased electromyographic tone +/dream enactment behavior during REM sleep. Management with counseling and pharmacologic measures is usually straight-forward and effective. In this review, the terminology, clinical and polysomnographic features, demographic and epidemiologic features, diagnostic criteria, differential diagnosis, and management strategies are discussed. Recent data on the suspected pathophysiologic mechanisms of RBD are also reviewed. The literature and our institutional experience on RBD are next discussed, with an emphasis on the RBD-neurodegenerative disease association and particularly the RBD-synucleinopathy association. Several issues relating to evolving concepts, controversies, and future directions are then reviewed, with an emphasis on idiopathic RBD representing an early feature of a neurodegenerative disease and particularly an evolving synucleinopathy. Planning for future therapies that impact patients with idiopathic RBD is reviewed in detail.

[1]  B. Boeve.  REM sleep behavior disorder , 2010, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[2]  C. Jack,et al.  Prominent phenotypic variability associated with mutations in Progranulin , 2009, Neurobiology of Aging.

[3]  M. Vendette,et al.  Quantifying the risk of neurodegenerative disease in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder , 2009, Neurology.

[4]  C. Jack,et al.  Serial PIB and MRI in normal, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: implications for sequence of pathological events in Alzheimer's disease , 2009, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[5]  H. Braak,et al.  Neuroanatomy and pathology of sporadic Parkinson's disease. , 2008, Advances in anatomy, embryology, and cell biology.

[6]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Pathological description of a non-motor variant of multiple system atrophy , 2008, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry.

[7]  Robert E Burke,et al.  A critical evaluation of the Braak staging scheme for Parkinson's disease , 2008, Annals of neurology.

[8]  F. Poli,et al.  Searching for a marker of REM sleep behavior disorder: submentalis muscle EMG amplitude analysis during sleep in patients with narcolepsy/cataplexy. , 2008, Sleep.

[9]  R. Postuma,et al.  Manifestations of Parkinson disease differ in association with REM sleep behavior disorder , 2008, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[10]  R. Postuma,et al.  REM sleep behaviour disorder in Parkinson’s disease is associated with specific motor features , 2008, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry.

[11]  H. Fukuyama,et al.  Decrease in myocardial 123I-MIBG radioactivity in REM sleep behavior disorder: two patients with different clinical progression. , 2008, Sleep medicine.

[12]  R. Petersen,et al.  P2-108: Lower scores in attention/executive functioning are associated with probable REM sleep behavior disorder among cognitively normal elderly subjects: The Mayo Clinic study of aging , 2008, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[13]  E. Tangalos,et al.  P4-136: Parkinsonism is associated with probable REM sleep behavior disorder in cognitively normal elderly subjects: The Mayo Clinic Study of Aging , 2008, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[14]  V. Pankratz,et al.  P2-107: Anxiety and apathy are associated with probable REM sleep behavior disorder among cognitively normal elderly subjects: The Mayo Clinic study of aging , 2008, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[15]  D. Dickson,et al.  Cardiac sympathetic denervation correlates with clinical and pathologic stages of Parkinson's disease , 2008, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[16]  Donald L Bliwise,et al.  Elevated PEM (phasic electromyographic metric) rates identify rapid eye movement behavior disorder patients on nights without behavioral abnormalities. , 2008, Sleep.

[17]  Keith A. Johnson,et al.  Imaging amyloid deposition in Lewy body diseases , 2008, Neurology.

[18]  K. Hirata,et al.  123I-MIBG cardiac scintigraphy provides clues to the underlying neurodegenerative disorder in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder. , 2008, Sleep.

[19]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Quantification of electromyographic activity during REM sleep in multiple muscles in REM sleep behavior disorder. , 2008, Sleep.

[20]  E. Sinforiani,et al.  Cognitive performance in REM sleep behaviour disorder: a possible early marker of neurodegenerative disease? , 2008, Sleep medicine.

[21]  M. Vendette,et al.  Executive dysfunction and memory impairment in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder , 2008, Neurology.

[22]  J. Schiefer,et al.  Rapid eye movement sleep disturbances in Huntington disease. , 2008, Archives of neurology.

[23]  D. Dickson,et al.  Evidence that incidental Lewy body disease is pre-symptomatic Parkinson’s disease , 2008, Acta Neuropathologica.

[24]  Thomas Penzel,et al.  Quantification of Tonic and Phasic Muscle Activity in REM Sleep Behavior Disorder , 2008, Journal of clinical neurophysiology : official publication of the American Electroencephalographic Society.

[25]  J. Parisi,et al.  Mesopontine cholinergic neuron involvement in Lewy body dementia and multiple system atrophy , 2008, Neurology.

[26]  Geert Mayer,et al.  The REM sleep behavior disorder screening questionnaire—A new diagnostic instrument , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[27]  M W Mahowald,et al.  Pathophysiology of REM sleep behaviour disorder and relevance to neurodegenerative disease. , 2007, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[28]  Kiyoharu Inoue,et al.  Reduced cardiac 123I-MIBG uptake reflects cardiac sympathetic dysfunction in Lewy body disease , 2007, Neurology.

[29]  E. Louis,et al.  Mild Parkinsonian signs: An overview of an emerging concept , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[30]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[31]  M. Vidailhet,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder in patients with guadeloupean parkinsonism, a tauopathy. , 2007, Sleep.

[32]  B. Boeve,et al.  Occurrence and clinical correlates of REM sleep behaviour disorder in patients with Parkinson’s disease over time , 2007, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry.

[33]  S. Chokroverty,et al.  The visual scoring of sleep in adults. , 2007, Journal of clinical sleep medicine : JCSM : official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine.

[34]  David Gozal,et al.  The scoring of respiratory events in sleep: reliability and validity. , 2007, Journal of clinical sleep medicine : JCSM : official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine.

[35]  E. Benarroch.  Brainstem respiratory control: Substrates of respiratory failure of multiple system atrophy , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[36]  K. Hirata,et al.  Reduced cardiac 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder , 2006, Neurology.

[37]  Ronald C Petersen,et al.  Neuropsychological Differentiation of Dementia with Lewy Bodies from Normal Aging and Alzheimer's Disease , 2006, The Clinical neuropsychologist.

[38]  B. Boeve,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder: A possible early marker for synucleinopathies , 2006, Neurology.

[39]  R. Postuma,et al.  Assessing whole brain perfusion changes in patients with REM sleep behavior disorder , 2006, Neurology.

[40]  R. Postuma,et al.  Olfactory deficit in idiopathic rapid eye movements sleep behavior disorder , 2006, Brain Research Bulletin.

[41]  J. Montplaisir,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder and REM sleep without atonia in probable Alzheimer disease. , 2006, Sleep.

[42]  R. Postuma,et al.  Update on the pharmacology of REM sleep behavior disorder , 2006, Neurology.

[43]  D. Reading.  Trial designs and outcomes in dementia therapeutic research , 2006, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

[44]  José Luis Molinuevo,et al.  Rapid-eye-movement sleep behaviour disorder as an early marker for a neurodegenerative disorder: a descriptive study , 2006, The Lancet Neurology.

[45]  G. Alexander,et al.  A preliminary fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography study in healthy adults reporting dream-enactment behavior. , 2006, Sleep.

[46]  C. Saper,et al.  A putative flip–flop switch for control of REM sleep , 2006, Nature.

[47]  J. Siegel,et al.  The stuff dreams are made of: anatomical substrates of REM sleep , 2006, Nature Neuroscience.

[48]  Jennifer L. Whitwell,et al.  Clinicopathological and imaging correlates of progressive aphasia and apraxia of speech. , 2006, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[49]  Julien Doyon,et al.  Rapid-eye-movement sleep behaviour disorder and neurodegenerative diseases , 2006, The Lancet Neurology.

[50]  B. Boeve,et al.  α-Synuclein pathology in the spinal cords of neurologically asymptomatic aged individuals , 2006, Neurology.

[51]  E. Sinforiani,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder, hallucinations, and cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease , 2006, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[52]  A. Lang,et al.  Potential early markers of Parkinson disease in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder , 2006, Neurology.

[53]  T. Klockgether,et al.  REM sleep behavioral disorder in pure autonomic failure (PAF) , 2006, Neurology.

[54]  A. Dinçer,et al.  Brainstem 1H-MR spectroscopy in patients with Parkinson's disease with REM sleep behavior disorder and IPD patients without dream enactment behavior , 2006, Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery.

[55]  C. Tanner,et al.  Excessive daytime sleepiness and subsequent development of Parkinson disease , 2005, Neurology.

[56]  Enrico Marchioni,et al.  Relationship between hallucinations, delusions, and rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in Parkinson's disease , 2005, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[57]  L. Thal,et al.  Anosmia is very common in the Lewy body variant of Alzheimer’s disease , 2005, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

[58]  R. Hilker,et al.  Lewy body Parkinson's disease in a large pedigree with 77 Parkin mutation carriers , 2005, Annals of neurology.

[59]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Characteristics of idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder and that associated with MSA and PD , 2005, Neurology.

[60]  Satoshi Orimo,et al.  Cardiac sympathetic denervation precedes neuronal loss in the sympathetic ganglia in Lewy body disease , 2005, Acta Neuropathologica.

[61]  Esra Kılıç,et al.  Clinical features of 35 patients with Parkinson's disease displaying REM behavior disorder , 2005, Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery.

[62]  Y. Agid,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder and REM sleep without atonia in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy. , 2005, Sleep.

[63]  J. Santamaria,et al.  Severe obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea mimicking REM sleep behavior disorder. , 2005, Sleep.

[64]  Julie Carrier,et al.  Slow‐wave sleep and delta power in rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder , 2005, Annals of neurology.

[65]  G. Plazzi,et al.  REM sleep behaviour disorder in Parkinson’s disease: a questionnaire-based study , 2005, Neurological Sciences.

[66]  B. Boeve,et al.  Involvement of medullary regions controlling sympathetic output in Lewy body disease. , 2004, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[67]  Thomas Meitinger,et al.  Mutations in LRRK2 Cause Autosomal-Dominant Parkinsonism with Pleomorphic Pathology , 2004, Neuron.

[68]  W. Oertel,et al.  Combination of 'idiopathic' REM sleep behaviour disorder and olfactory dysfunction as possible indicator for alpha-synucleinopathy demonstrated by dopamine transporter FP-CIT-SPECT. , 2004, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[69]  R. Petersen,et al.  Clinical, genetic, and neuropathologic characteristics of posterior cortical atrophy , 2004, Neurology.

[70]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in parkinsonism with parkin mutations , 2004, Annals of neurology.

[71]  B. Boeve,et al.  REM Sleep Behavior Disorder in Parkinson’s Disease and Dementia with Lewy Bodies , 2004, Journal of geriatric psychiatry and neurology.

[72]  R. Petersen.  Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity , 2004, Journal of internal medicine.

[73]  Hansjürgen Bratzke,et al.  Stages in the development of Parkinson’s disease-related pathology , 2004, Cell and Tissue Research.

[74]  M. Mahowald,et al.  Rem sleep without atonia--from cats to humans. , 2004, Archives italiennes de biologie.

[75]  J. Winkelman,et al.  Serotonergic antidepressants are associated with REM sleep without atonia. , 2004, Sleep.

[76]  N. Tachibana,et al.  Longitudinal change in REM sleep components in a patient with multiple system atrophy associated with REM sleep behavior disorder: paradoxical improvement of nocturnal behaviors in a progressive neurodegenerative disease. , 2004, Sleep medicine.

[77]  W. Klunk,et al.  Imaging brain amyloid in Alzheimer's disease with Pittsburgh Compound‐B , 2004, Annals of neurology.

[78]  D W Dickson,et al.  DLB fluctuations , 2004, Neurology.

[79]  S. Cappa,et al.  Neuropsychological assessment in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) , 2004, Neurology.

[80]  G. Frisoni,et al.  Drug Treatment of REM Sleep Behavior Disorders in Dementia With Lewy Bodies , 2003, International Psychogeriatrics.

[81]  J. Montplaisir,et al.  The effects of pramipexole in REM sleep behavior disorder , 2003, Neurology.

[82]  D. Nutt,et al.  Mirtazapine induces REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) in parkinsonism , 2003, Neurology.

[83]  E. Tolosa,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder and vocal cord paralysis in Machado‐Joseph disease , 2003, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[84]  P. Luppi,et al.  Localization of the GABAergic and non‐GABAergic neurons projecting to the sublaterodorsal nucleus and potentially gating paradoxical sleep onset , 2003, The European journal of neuroscience.

[85]  S. Noachtar,et al.  Increased muscle activity during rapid eye movement sleep correlates with decrease of striatal presynaptic dopamine transporters. IPT and IBZM SPECT imaging in subclinical and clinically manifest idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder, Parkinson's disease, and controls. , 2003, Sleep.

[86]  G. E. Smith,et al.  Synucleinopathy pathology and REM sleep behavior disorder plus dementia or parkinsonism , 2003, Neurology.

[87]  B. Boeve,et al.  Melatonin for treatment of REM sleep behavior disorder in neurologic disorders: results in 14 patients. , 2003, Sleep medicine.

[88]  Julie Carrier,et al.  Slowing of electroencephalogram in rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder , 2003, Annals of neurology.

[89]  H. Braak,et al.  Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic Parkinson’s disease , 2003, Neurobiology of Aging.

[90]  D. Aarsland,et al.  Prevalence and characteristics of dementia in Parkinson disease: an 8-year prospective study. , 2003, Archives of neurology.

[91]  M. Onofrj,et al.  HLA typing does not predict REM sleep behaviour disorder and hallucinations in Parkinson's disease , 2003, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[92]  Raymond Scott Turner.  Idiopathic Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder Is a Harbinger of Dementia with Lewy Bodies , 2002, Journal of geriatric psychiatry and neurology.

[93]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Brainstem proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in idopathic REM sleep behavior disorder. , 2002, Sleep.

[94]  J. Friedman,et al.  Presumed rapid eye movement behavior disorder in Machado‐Joseph disease (spinocerebellar ataxia type 3) , 2002, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[95]  R. Petersen,et al.  Dementia with Lewy bodies may present as dementia and REM sleep behavior disorder without parkinsonism or hallucinations , 2002, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society.

[96]  Damien Gervasoni,et al.  The rat ponto‐medullary network responsible for paradoxical sleep onset and maintenance: a combined microinjection and functional neuroanatomical study , 2002, The European journal of neuroscience.

[97]  M. Onofrj,et al.  Incidence of RBD and hallucination in patients affected by Parkinson's disease: 8-year follow-up , 2002, Neurological Sciences.

[98]  J. Carrier,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder and REM sleep without atonia in Parkinson’s disease , 2002, Neurology.

[99]  M. Mahowald,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder: clinical, developmental, and neuroscience perspectives 16 years after its formal identification in SLEEP. , 2002, Sleep.

[100]  I. Kanazawa,et al.  Homozygous Machado–Joseph disease presenting as REM sleep behaviour disorder and prominent psychiatric symptoms , 2002, European journal of neurology.

[101]  I G McKeith,et al.  Dementia with Lewy bodies: diagnosis and management , 2001, International journal of geriatric psychiatry.

[102]  R. Manni,et al.  Hallucinations, REM sleep, and Parkinson’s disease: A medical hypothesis , 2001, Neurology.

[103]  B. Boeve,et al.  Association of REM sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease may reflect an underlying synucleinopathy , 2001, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[104]  D. Mann.  Anosmia in dementia is associated with Lewy bodies rather than Alzheimer's pathology , 2001, Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

[105]  Raymond Scott Turner,et al.  The pathology of REM sleep behavior disorder with comorbid Lewy body dementia. , 2000, Neurology.

[106]  R. Chervin,et al.  Decreased striatal dopaminergic innervation in REM sleep behavior disorder , 2000, Neurology.

[107]  J. Ringman,et al.  Treatment of REM sleep behavior disorder with donepezil: A report of three cases , 2000, Neurology.

[108]  K. Hirata,et al.  Brainstem function in rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder: The evaluation of brainstem function by proton MR spectroscopy (1H‐MRS) , 2000, Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[109]  S Noachtar,et al.  Reduced striatal dopamine transporters in idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder. Comparison with Parkinson's disease and controls. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[110]  E. Mori,et al.  Visuoperceptual impairment in dementia with Lewy bodies. , 2000, Archives of neurology.

[111]  B. Boeve,et al.  Rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder: demographic, clinical and laboratory findings in 93 cases. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[112]  R. Watts,et al.  Juvenile Parkinson’s disease with REM sleep behavior disorder, sleepiness, and daytime REM onset , 1999, Neurology.

[113]  R. Petersen,et al.  Highly active antiretroviral therapy reverses brain metabolite abnormalities in mild HIV dementia , 1999, Neurology.

[114]  C. Lücking,et al.  Cardiac uptake of [123I]MIBG separates Parkinson’s disease from multiple system atrophy , 1999, Neurology.

[115]  D. Kunz,et al.  Melatonin as a therapy in rem sleep behavior disorder patients: An open‐labeled pilot study on the possible influence of melatonin on rem‐sleep regulation , 1999, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[116]  R. Petersen,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder and dementia , 1999, Neurology.

[117]  E. Tangalos,et al.  Mild Cognitive Impairment Clinical Characterization and Outcome , 1999 .

[118]  G. E. Smith,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder and degenerative dementia , 1998, Neurology.

[119]  Glenn T. Stebbins,et al.  Sleep-related violence, injury, and REM sleep behavior disorder in Parkinson's disease , 1998, Neurology.

[120]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  REM sleep motor dysfunction in multiple system atrophy: with special emphasis on sleep talk as its early clinical manifestation , 1997, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[121]  E. Sforza,et al.  REM sleep behavior disorder: clinical and physiopathological findings. , 1997, Sleep medicine reviews.

[122]  T. Aso,et al.  Subclinical REM sleep behavior disorder in a patient with corticobasal degeneration. , 1997, Sleep.

[123]  M. Mahowald,et al.  Lewy body variant of alzheimer's disease (AD) identified by postmortem ubiquitin staining in a previously reported case of AD associated with REM sleep behavior disorder , 1997, Biological Psychiatry.

[124]  M. Ohayon,et al.  Violent behavior during sleep. , 1997, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[125]  Raymond Scott Turner,et al.  Probable diffuse Lewy body disease presenting as REM sleep behavior disorder , 1997, Neurology.

[126]  Y. Lai,et al.  Brainstem-mediated locomotion and myoclonic jerks. I. Neural substrates , 1997, Brain Research.

[127]  J. Masa,et al.  A first case of progressive supranuclear palsy and pre-clinical REM sleep behavior disorder presenting as inhibition of speech during wakefulness and somniloquy with phasic muscle twitching during REM sleep. , 1996, Neurologia.

[128]  E. Garcia-Rill,et al.  A case of REM sleep behavior disorder with autopsy-confirmed alzheimer's disease: postmortem brain stem histochemical analyses , 1996, Biological Psychiatry.

[129]  S. Fahn,et al.  Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder preceding Parkinson's disease with therapeutic response to levodopa , 1996, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[130]  M. Mahowald,et al.  Long-term, nightly benzodiazepine treatment of injurious parasomnias and other disorders of disrupted nocturnal sleep in 170 adults. , 1996, The American journal of medicine.

[131]  Mark W. Mahowald,et al.  Delayed emergence of a parkinsonian disorder in 38% of 29 older men initially diagnosed with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder , 1996, Neurology.

[132]  M. Uchiyama,et al.  Incidental Lewy body disease in a patient with REM sleep behavior disorder , 1995, Neurology.

[133]  N. Quinn,et al.  REM sleep behaviour disorder as the presenting symptom of multiple system atrophy. , 1995, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[134]  Thoru Yamada,et al.  Violent sleep-related behavior leading to subdural hemorrhage. , 1995, Archives of neurology.

[135]  M. Mahowald,et al.  REM sleep behaviour disorder: an update on a series of 96 patients and a review of the world literature , 1993 .

[136]  R. Manni,et al.  Nocturnal sleep in multisystem atrophy with autonomic failure: polygraphic findings in ten patients , 1993, Journal of Neurology.

[137]  Jacques Montplaisir,et al.  Polysomnographic features of REM sleep behavior disorder , 1992, Neurology.

[138]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  Pontine regulation of REM sleep components in cats: integrity of the pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT) is important for phasic events but unnecessary for atonia during REM sleep , 1992, Brain Research.

[139]  Y. Lai,et al.  Muscle tone suppression and stepping produced by stimulation of midbrain and rostral pontine reticular formation , 1990, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[140]  Daniel J Buysse,et al.  Shy-Drager Syndrome Presenting as a REM Behavioral Disorder , 1990, Journal of geriatric psychiatry and neurology.

[141]  A. Culebras,et al.  Magnetic resonance findings in REM sleep behavior disorder , 1989, Neurology.

[142]  M. Kryger,et al.  Principles And Practice Of Sleep Medicine , 1989 .

[143]  J. Siegel,et al.  Medullary regions mediating atonia , 1988, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[144]  M W Mahowald,et al.  Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder: A Treatable Parasomnia Affecting Older Adults , 1987 .

[145]  M W Mahowald,et al.  Chronic behavioral disorders of human REM sleep: a new category of parasomnia. , 1986, Sleep.

[146]  C. Guilleminault,et al.  Olivopontocerebellar degeneration, abnormal sleep, and REM sleep without atonia , 1986, Neurology.

[147]  A. Morrison,et al.  Different behaviors during paradoxical sleep without atonia depend on pontine lesion site , 1982, Brain Research.

[148]  B. Boeve,et al.  Insights into REM sleep behavior disorder pathophysiology in brainstem-predominant Lewy body disease. , 2007, Sleep medicine.

[149]  A. Chesson,et al.  The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology and Technical Specifications , 2007 .

[150]  A. Chesson,et al.  The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology, and Techinical Specifications , 2007 .

[151]  M. Zucconi,et al.  Sleep-related respiratory and haemodynamic changes in Shy-Drager syndrome: a case report , 2004, Journal of Neurology.

[152]  G. Plazzi,et al.  Sleep disorders in multiple system atrophy: a correlative video-polysomnographic study. , 2004, Sleep medicine.

[153]  J. Taki,et al.  Significance of 123I-MIBG scintigraphy as a pathophysiological indicator in the assessment of Parkinson’s disease and related disorders: It can be a specific marker for Lewy body disease , 2004 .

[154]  R. Petersen,et al.  REM Sleep Behavior Disorder in Parkinson’s Disease, Dementia with Lewy Bodies, and Multiple System Atrophy , 2003 .

[155]  A. Morrison.  The pathophysiology of REM-sleep behavior disorder. , 1998, Sleep.

[156]  D. Rye.  Contributions of the pedunculopontine region to normal and altered REM sleep. , 1997, Sleep.

[157]  K. Wakabayashi,et al.  Neuropathology of autonomic nervous system in Parkinson's disease. , 1997, European neurology.

[158]  M. W. Mahowald,et al.  REM sleep parasomnias. , 1996, Neurologic clinics.

[159]  C. Bamford.  Carbamazepine in REM sleep behavior disorder. , 1993, Sleep.

[160]  M. Mahowald,et al.  POLYSOMNOGRAPHIC, NEUROLOGIC, PSYCHIATRIC, AND CLINICAL OUTCOME REPORT ON 70 CONSECUTIVE CASES WITH REM SLEEP BEHAVIOR DISORDER (RBD) : SUSTAINED CLON AZEPAM EFFICAY IN 89.5% OF 57 TREATED PATIENTS , 1990 .

[161]  M W Mahowald,et al.  A polysomnographic and clinical report on sleep-related injury in 100 adult patients. , 1989, The American journal of psychiatry.

[162]  M. Jouvet,et al.  Locus coeruleus et sommeil paradoxal , 1965 .