Cardiovascular injury and repair in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Cardiovascular disease represents a considerable burden in terms of both morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). For 20 years, forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1)) has been an established predictor of cardiovascular mortality among smokers, never-smokers, and patients with COPD. We review evidence for increased cardiovascular risk in COPD. In addition, we assess the emerging evidence which suggests that hypoxia, systemic inflammation, and oxidative stress in patients with COPD may cause cardiovascular disease. We also discuss alternative hypotheses that the endothelium and connective tissues in the arteries and lungs of patients with COPD and cardiovascular disease have a shared susceptibility to these factors.

[1]  Albert Hofman,et al.  Arterial Stiffness and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke: The Rotterdam Study , 2006, Circulation.

[2]  P. Ducimetiere,et al.  Reduced pulmonary function is associated with central arterial stiffness in men. , 2001, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[3]  D. Webb,et al.  Endothelial dysfunction, impaired endogenous fibrinolysis, and cigarette smoking: a mechanism for arterial thrombosis and myocardial infarction. , 1999, Circulation.

[4]  S. Sidney,et al.  COPD and incident cardiovascular disease hospitalizations and mortality: Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program. , 2005, Chest.

[5]  T. Omland,et al.  Statin use is associated with reduced mortality in COPD , 2006, European Respiratory Journal.

[6]  W. MacNee,et al.  Increased arterial stiffness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a mechanism for increased cardiovascular risk , 2007, Thorax.

[7]  M. Tschöp,et al.  High altitude increases circulating interleukin-6, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and C-reactive protein. , 2000, Cytokine.

[8]  T. Aw,et al.  Molecular mechanisms of anoxia/reoxygenation-induced neutrophil adherence to cultured endothelial cells. , 1997, Circulation research.

[9]  D. Sin,et al.  The effects of fluticasone with or without salmeterol on systemic biomarkers of inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2008, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[10]  D. Celermajer,et al.  Repetitive hypoxia increases lipid loading in human macrophages-a potentially atherogenic effect. , 2005, Atherosclerosis.

[11]  E. Silverman,et al.  Smoking related COPD and facial wrinkling: Is there a common susceptibility?: Thorax 2006;61:568–671 , 2006 .

[12]  H. Wedel,et al.  Peak expiratory flow and risk of cardiovascular disease and death. A 12-year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. , 1986, American journal of epidemiology.

[13]  M. Pfeffer,et al.  Elevation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and increased risk of recurrent coronary events after myocardial infarction. , 2000, Circulation.

[14]  J. Ornato,et al.  ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult—Summary Article , 2005 .

[15]  D. Sin,et al.  The relationship between reduced lung function and cardiovascular mortality: a population-based study and a systematic review of the literature. , 2005, Chest.

[16]  V. Pasceri,et al.  C-reactive protein: linking inflammation to cardiovascular complications. , 2001, Circulation.

[17]  R. Peters,et al.  IL-8 Plasma Concentrations and the Risk of Future Coronary Artery Disease in Apparently Healthy Men and Women: The EPIC-Norfolk Prospective Population Study , 2004, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[18]  A. Schols,et al.  Systemic effects in COPD. , 2002, Chest.

[19]  W. Kannel,et al.  Mortality associated with respiratory function and symptoms in advanced age. The Framingham Study. , 1989, The American review of respiratory disease.

[20]  Carl J Pepine,et al.  ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for the management of patients with unstable angina and non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction--summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients , 2002, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[21]  N. Samani,et al.  Expanding the concept of telomere dysfunction in cardiovascular disease. , 2008, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[22]  K. Node,et al.  Vascular failure: a new clinical entity for vascular disease , 2006, Journal of hypertension.

[23]  Anthony P Reeves,et al.  Impaired flow-mediated dilation is associated with low pulmonary function and emphysema in ex-smokers: the Emphysema and Cancer Action Project (EMCAP) Study. , 2007, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[24]  S. Suissa,et al.  Low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in COPD , 2005, European Respiratory Journal.

[25]  C. Balke,et al.  Oxidative stress and left ventricular function with chronic intermittent hypoxia in rats. , 2005, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[26]  Kazuhisa Takahashi,et al.  Senescence marker protein-30 protects mice lungs from oxidative stress, aging, and smoking. , 2006, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[27]  E. Piitulainen,et al.  Circulating monocytes from healthy individuals and COPD patients , 2003, Respiratory research.

[28]  K L Ebi-Kryston,et al.  Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function as predictors of 10-year mortality from respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and all causes in the Whitehall Study. , 1988, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[29]  R. Hopkins,et al.  Forced expiratory volume in one second: not just a lung function test but a marker of premature death from all causes , 2007, European Respiratory Journal.

[30]  W. MacNee,et al.  Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper , 2004, European Respiratory Journal.

[31]  M. Blasco,et al.  Disease states associated with telomerase deficiency appear earlier in mice with short telomeres , 1999, The EMBO journal.

[32]  W. Bailey,et al.  Editorial: Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) 2023 Guidelines for COPD, Including COVID-19, Climate Change, and Air Pollution , 2023, Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research.

[33]  James E. Johnson,et al.  Use of β blockers and the risk of death in hospitalised patients with acute exacerbations of COPD , 2007, Thorax.

[34]  X. Busquets,et al.  Enhanced neutrophil response in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , 2001, Thorax.

[35]  J. O’Keefe,et al.  Autonomic tone as a cardiovascular risk factor: the dangers of chronic fight or flight. , 2002, Mayo Clinic proceedings.

[36]  K. Ozasa,et al.  ASSOCIATION OF LUNG FUNCTION WITH ATHEROSCLEROTIC RISK FACTORS AMONG JAPANESE AMERICANS: SEATTLE NIKKEI HEALTH STUDY , 2004, Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology.

[37]  V. Peinado,et al.  Identification of vascular progenitor cells in pulmonary arteries of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2006, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[38]  T. Shim,et al.  Simvastatin inhibits cigarette smoking-induced emphysema and pulmonary hypertension in rat lungs. , 2005, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[39]  C. Lenfant,et al.  Global Initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , 2006 .

[40]  X. Busquets,et al.  Expression of adhesion molecules and G proteins in circulating neutrophils in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 1998, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[41]  B. Hedblad,et al.  Lung Function and Cardiovascular Risk: Relationship With Inflammation-Sensitive Plasma Proteins , 2002, Circulation.

[42]  A. Agustí,et al.  Telomere shortening in smokers with and without COPD , 2006, European Respiratory Journal.

[43]  T. Assimes,et al.  Inhaled short acting β agonist use in COPD and the risk of acute myocardial infarction , 2003, Thorax.

[44]  Ferdinand J. Venditti,et al.  Reduced Heart Rate Variability and Mortalit Risk in an Elderly Cohort: The Framingham Heart Study , 1994, Circulation.

[45]  Jianguo Li,et al.  Chronic intermittent hypoxia induces atherosclerosis. , 2007, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[46]  D. Sin,et al.  The interactions between cigarette smoking and reduced lung function on systemic inflammation. , 2005, Chest.

[47]  M. Etminan,et al.  Reduction of morbidity and mortality by statins, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2006, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[48]  Jeroen J. Bax,et al.  Impact of cardioselective beta-blockers on mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and atherosclerosis. , 2008, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[49]  R. Nagai,et al.  Disruption of the klotho gene causes pulmonary emphysema in mice. Defect in maintenance of pulmonary integrity during postnatal life. , 2000, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[50]  M. Cosio,et al.  Hypothesis: Does COPD have an autoimmune component? , 2003, Thorax.

[51]  E. Benjamin,et al.  Obesity and Systemic Oxidative Stress: Clinical Correlates of Oxidative Stress in The Framingham Study , 2003, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[52]  Stéphane Cook,et al.  High heart rate: a cardiovascular risk factor? , 2006, European heart journal.

[53]  J. Ornato,et al.  ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-ST-Elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines for the Management of Patie , 2007, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[54]  N. Thomson,et al.  Potential therapeutic role for statins in respiratory disease , 2006, Thorax.

[55]  D. Sin,et al.  Effects of fluticasone on systemic markers of inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2004, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[56]  S. Fichtlscherer,et al.  Reduced Number of Circulating Endothelial Progenitor Cells Predicts Future Cardiovascular Events: Proof of Concept for the Clinical Importance of Endogenous Vascular Repair , 2005, Circulation.

[57]  J. Berger,et al.  Effect of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on survival of patients with coronary heart disease having percutaneous coronary intervention. , 2004, The American journal of cardiology.

[58]  M. O'Rourke,et al.  Arterial stiffness, systolic blood pressure, and logical treatment of arterial hypertension. , 1990, Hypertension.

[59]  P. Libby.  Inflammation in atherosclerosis , 2002, Nature.

[60]  W. MacNee,et al.  Effects of hypoxia on renal hormonal balance in normal subjects and in patients with COPD. , 1998, Respiratory medicine.

[61]  T. Truelsen,et al.  Lung function and risk of fatal and non-fatal stroke. The Copenhagen City Heart Study. , 2001, International journal of epidemiology.

[62]  Nancy R Cook,et al.  Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[63]  A. Quyyumi,et al.  Circulating endothelial progenitor cells, vascular function, and cardiovascular risk. , 2003, The New England journal of medicine.

[64]  S. Laurent,et al.  Aortic Stiffness Is an Independent Predictor of Fatal Stroke in Essential Hypertension , 2003, Stroke.

[65]  W. MacNee,et al.  Systemic oxidative stress in asthma, COPD, and smokers. , 1996, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[66]  B. Gersh.  Telomere length, risk of coronary heart disease, and statin treatment in the West of Scotland Primary Prevention Study: a nested case-control study , 2008 .

[67]  A Senthilselvan,et al.  Association between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and systemic inflammation: a systematic review and a meta-analysis , 2004, Thorax.

[68]  T. Zglinicki,et al.  Replicative Aging, Telomeres, and Oxidative Stress , 2002, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[69]  W. Bailey,et al.  Use of beta blockers and the risk of death in hospitalised patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. , 2008, Thorax.

[70]  R. Cawthon,et al.  Association between telomere length in blood and mortality in people aged 60 years or older , 2003, The Lancet.

[71]  G. Hasenfuss,et al.  Marked sympathetic activation in patients with chronic respiratory failure. , 2001, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[72]  J. Janssens,et al.  Physiological changes in respiratory function associated with ageing. , 1999, The European respiratory journal.

[73]  Lieu Tl,et al.  Obesity, cigarette smoking, and telomere length in women , 2005 .

[74]  S. Laurent,et al.  Aortic Stiffness Is an Independent Predictor of Primary Coronary Events in Hypertensive Patients: A Longitudinal Study , 2002, Hypertension.

[75]  E. Metter,et al.  Rapid decline in FEV1. A new risk factor for coronary heart disease mortality. , 1995, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[76]  A. Luttun,et al.  Loss of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 or Matrix Metalloproteinase-12 Protects Apolipoprotein E–Deficient Mice Against Atherosclerotic Media Destruction but Differentially Affects Plaque Growth , 2004, Circulation.

[77]  L. Fabbri,et al.  Association between markers of emphysema and more severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , 2006, Thorax.

[78]  A. Hofman,et al.  C-reactive protein and arterial stiffness in older adults: the Rotterdam Study. , 2004, Atherosclerosis.

[79]  P. Libby,et al.  Inflammation and Atherosclerosis , 2002, Circulation.

[80]  A. Aviv.  Telomeres and human somatic fitness. , 2006, The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences.

[81]  S. Devaraj,et al.  C-Reactive Protein Increases Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 Expression and Activity in Human Aortic Endothelial Cells: Implications for the Metabolic Syndrome and Atherothrombosis , 2003, Circulation.

[82]  B. Hemmelgarn,et al.  Bronchodilators and acute cardiac death. , 1996, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[83]  S. Shapiro,et al.  Requirement for macrophage elastase for cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. , 1997, Science.

[84]  M. Lebowitz,et al.  Death certificate reporting of confirmed airways obstructive disease. , 1991, American journal of epidemiology.

[85]  S. Verma,et al.  Endothelin Antagonism and Interleukin-6 Inhibition Attenuate the Proatherogenic Effects of C-Reactive Protein , 2002, Circulation.

[86]  T. Meade,et al.  Recent respiratory infection and risk of cardiovascular disease: case-control study through a general practice database. , 2007, European heart journal.

[87]  R. Peto,et al.  The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction. , 1977, British medical journal.

[88]  D. Hartmann,et al.  Changes in the elastic tissue of the non‐sun‐exposed skin of cigarette smokers , 1991, The British journal of dermatology.

[89]  T. Tsuji,et al.  Alveolar cell senescence in patients with pulmonary emphysema. , 2006, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[90]  S. Scalvini,et al.  Decreased heart rate variability in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 1994, Chest.

[91]  Peter Libby,et al.  Inflammatory mechanisms: the molecular basis of inflammation and disease. , 2007, Nutrition reviews.

[92]  P. Palange,et al.  Circulating haemopoietic and endothelial progenitor cells are decreased in COPD , 2006, European Respiratory Journal.

[93]  F. Bonomini,et al.  Atherosclerosis and oxidative stress. , 2008, Histology and histopathology.

[94]  W. Koenig,et al.  C-Reactive Protein in the Arterial Intima: Role of C-Reactive Protein Receptor–Dependent Monocyte Recruitment in Atherogenesis , 2000, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[95]  C. Tribouilloy,et al.  Impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on long-term outcome of patients hospitalized for heart failure. , 2008, The American journal of cardiology.

[96]  Tadashi Kaname,et al.  Mutation of the mouse klotho gene leads to a syndrome resembling ageing , 1997, Nature.

[97]  E. Wouters,et al.  Raised CRP levels mark metabolic and functional impairment in advanced COPD , 2005, Thorax.

[98]  T. Minamino,et al.  Mechanisms of Telomerase Induction During Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation , 2001, Circulation research.

[99]  J. Skurnick,et al.  Age dependent aneuploidy and telomere length of the human vascular endothelium. , 2001, Atherosclerosis.

[100]  K. Griendling,et al.  Basic mechanisms of oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species in cardiovascular injury. , 2007, Trends in cardiovascular medicine.

[101]  C. O'connor,et al.  Elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinases in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of emphysematous patients. , 1997, Thorax.

[102]  E. Wouters.  Local and systemic inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2005, Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society.

[103]  Bartolome Celli,et al.  Salmeterol and fluticasone propionate and survival in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2007, The New England journal of medicine.

[104]  D. Webb,et al.  Effects of short-term isocapnic hyperoxia and hypoxia on cardiovascular function. , 2006, Journal of applied physiology.

[105]  J. Skurnick,et al.  Telomere Length as an Indicator of Biological Aging: The Gender Effect and Relation With Pulse Pressure and Pulse Wave Velocity , 2001, Hypertension.

[106]  P. Libby,et al.  Pathophysiology of Coronary Artery Disease , 2005, Circulation.

[107]  Sridevi Devaraj,et al.  Demonstration That C-Reactive Protein Decreases eNOS Expression and Bioactivity in Human Aortic Endothelial Cells , 2002, Circulation.

[108]  V. Peinado,et al.  Endothelial dysfunction in pulmonary arteries of patients with mild COPD. , 1998, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[109]  A. Evans,et al.  C-Reactive Protein, Interleukin-6, and Fibrinogen as Predictors of Coronary Heart Disease: The PRIME Study , 2003, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[110]  S. Teramoto,et al.  Aging, the aging lung, and senile emphysema are different. , 2007, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[111]  Robert A Wise,et al.  Ascertainment of cause-specific mortality in COPD: operations of the TORCH Clinical Endpoint Committee , 2007, Thorax.

[112]  Yasmin,et al.  Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), MMP-2, and Serum Elastase Activity Are Associated With Systolic Hypertension and Arterial Stiffness , 2004, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[113]  G. Tsirpanlis.  Cellular senescence, cardiovascular risk, and CKD: a review of established and hypothetical interconnections. , 2008, American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation.

[114]  A. Folsom,et al.  Lung function and ischemic stroke incidence: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. , 2006, Chest.

[115]  S. Bojesen,et al.  C-reactive protein as a predictor of prognosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2007, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[116]  W. Markiewicz,et al.  Inverse association between pulmonary function and C-reactive protein in apparently healthy subjects. , 2006, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[117]  M. Egred,et al.  Under-use of beta-blockers in patients with ischaemic heart disease and concomitant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2005, QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians.

[118]  J. Spertus,et al.  Impact of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease on Post-Myocardial Infarction Outcomes: P201 , 2006, The American journal of cardiology.

[119]  [Population study of women in Gothenburg]. , 1981, Lakartidningen.

[120]  P M Rautaharju,et al.  Cardiac Infarction Injury Score: An Electrocardiographic Coding Scheme for Ischemic Heart Disease , 1981, Circulation.

[121]  S. Suissa,et al.  Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in COPD. , 2005, Chest.

[122]  Peter H Edwards,et al.  Arterial stiffness and osteoporosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2007, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[123]  M. Blasco,et al.  Ablation of telomerase and telomere loss leads to cardiac dilatation and heart failure associated with p53 upregulation , 2003, The EMBO journal.

[124]  V M Hawthorne,et al.  Impaired lung function and mortality risk in men and women: findings from the Renfrew and Paisley prospective population study , 1996, BMJ.

[125]  Judith K Jones,et al.  Cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Saskatchewan Canada cardiovascular disease in COPD patients. , 2006, Annals of epidemiology.

[126]  S. Antoniu,et al.  Hospitalizations and mortality in the Lung Health Study , 2002, Expert review of pharmacoeconomics & outcomes research.

[127]  E. Blackburn,et al.  Telomeres and telomerase. , 2002, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[128]  S. Gottlieb,et al.  Effect of beta-blockade on mortality among high-risk and low-risk patients after myocardial infarction. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[129]  E. Silverman,et al.  Smoking related COPD and facial wrinkling: is there a common susceptibility? , 2006, Thorax.

[130]  D. Sin,et al.  Why are patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at increased risk of cardiovascular diseases? The potential role of systemic inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2003, Circulation.

[131]  P. Ridker,et al.  Plasma Concentration of C-Reactive Protein and the Calculated Framingham Coronary Heart Disease Risk Score , 2003, Circulation.

[132]  H. Coxson,et al.  Antielastin autoimmunity in tobacco smoking–induced emphysema , 2007, Nature Medicine.

[133]  B. Hedblad,et al.  Respiratory Decline in Smokers and Ex-Smokers — An Independent Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease and Death , 2000, Journal of cardiovascular risk.

[134]  R. Mecham,et al.  The stumbling block in lung repair of emphysema: elastic fiber assembly. , 2006, Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society.

[135]  C. Vogelmeier,et al.  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and premature aging. , 2007, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[136]  G GUIMARAES,et al.  Essential hypertension , 1950, Revue de medecine aeronautique.

[137]  T. Matsuo,et al.  Telomere Shortening in Human Coronary Artery Diseases , 2004, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[138]  D. Kass,et al.  Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and therapy of arterial stiffness. , 2005, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[139]  Yasmin,et al.  Variation in the Human Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Gene Is Associated With Arterial Stiffness in Healthy Individuals , 2006, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[140]  G. Hunninghake,et al.  Cigarette smoke induces cellular senescence. , 2006, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[141]  E. Salpeter,et al.  Cardioselective beta-blockers for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 2005, The Cochrane database of systematic reviews.

[142]  A. Agustí.  Systemic effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: what we know and what we don't know (but should). , 2007, Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society.

[143]  Lippincott Williams Wilkins,et al.  ACC/AHA Guidelines for the Management of Patients With ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction , 2004 .

[144]  J. Curtis,et al.  Association between inhaled beta-agonists and the risk of unstable angina and myocardial infarction. , 2002, Chest.