A review of water quality concerns in livestock farming areas.

Post-war changes in farming systems and especially the move from mixed arable-livestock farming towards greater specialisation, together with the general intensification of food production have had adverse affects on the environment. Livestock systems have largely become separated into pasture-based (cattle and sheep) and indoor systems (pigs and poultry). This paper reviews water quality issues in livestock farming areas of the UK. The increased losses of nutrients, farm effluents (particularly livestock wastes), pesticides such as sheep-dipping chemicals, bacterial and protozoan contamination of soil and water are some of the main concerns regarding water quality degradation. There has been a general uncoupling of nutrient cycles, and problems relating to nutrient loss are either short-term direct losses or long-term, related to accumulated nutrient surpluses. Results from several field studies indicate that a rational use of manure and mineral fertilisers can help reduce the pollution problems arising from livestock farming practices. Several best management practices are suggested for the control of nutrient loss and minimising release of pathogen and sheep-dip chemicals into agricultural runoff.

[1]  NON-POINT SOURCE LOADINGS OF NUTRIENTS AND DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON FROM AN AGRICULTURAL-SUBURBAN WATERSHED IN EAST CENTRAL FLORIDA , 1991 .

[2]  E. A. Garwood,et al.  Nitrate leaching from grazed grassland lysimeters: effects of fertilizer input, field drainage, age of sward and patterns of weather , 1993 .

[3]  A. Edwards,et al.  Soluble nitrogen and phosphorus in the River Ythan system, U.K.: Annual and seasonal trends , 1995 .

[4]  S. Klausner,et al.  Nitrogen and Phosphorus Losses from Winter Disposal of Dairy Manure , 1976 .

[5]  P. Hellegers,et al.  Mineral balances at farm level in the European Union , 1995 .

[6]  O. Schoumans,et al.  Impact of manure on accumulation and leaching of phosphate in areas of intensive livestock farming , 1995 .

[7]  H. Korevaar,et al.  Practical measures to reduce nutrient losses from grassland systems. , 1990 .

[8]  R. Young,et al.  Pollution Potential of Manure Spread on Frozen Ground , 1976 .

[9]  J. P. Frost,et al.  Survival of pathogenic bacteria during mesophilic anaerobic digestion of animal waste. , 1993, The Journal of applied bacteriology.

[10]  E J Jack,et al.  An outbreak of Salmonella typhimurium infection in cattle associated with the spreading of slurry , 1969, Veterinary Record.

[11]  J. Dorioz,et al.  Pollution diffuse et gestion du milieu agricole : transferts compares de phosphore et d'azote dans un petit bassin versant agricole , 1994 .

[12]  R. F. Follett,et al.  Nitrogen management and ground water protection. , 1989 .

[13]  J. Culley,et al.  Bacteriological Quality of Surface and Subsurface Runoff from Manured Sandy Clay Loam Soil 1 , 1982 .

[14]  E. Uunk.  Eutrophication of surface waters and the contribution of agriculture , 1991 .

[15]  C. M. Cooper,et al.  Biological Effects of Agriculturally Derived Surface Water Pollutants on Aquatic Systems—A Review , 1993 .

[16]  Saied Mostaghimi,et al.  Evaluation of vegetative filter strips as a best management practice for feed lots , 1988 .

[17]  M. R. Overcash,et al.  Transport of potential pollutants in runoff water from land areas receiving animal wastes: A review , 1980 .

[18]  A. Bell,et al.  Guidelines for the analysis of post-production systems: a joint initiative of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. , 2000 .

[19]  F. R. Hore,et al.  SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND REMOVAL OF NUTRIENTS BY CORN RESULTING FROM DIFFERENT RATES AND TIMING OF LIQUID DAIRY MANURE APPLICATIONS , 1981 .

[20]  K. Steele.  Animal Waste and the Land-Water Interface , 1995 .

[21]  J. Sims,et al.  PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY AND SORPTION IN AN ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN WATERSHED DOMINATED BY ANIMAL‐BASED AGRICULTURE , 1994 .

[22]  P. Matthews,et al.  Examination of slurry from cattle for pathogenic bacteria , 1975, Journal of Hygiene.

[23]  K. Angus.  Cryptosporidiosis in Man, Domestic Animals and Birds: A Review , 1983, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[24]  J. Syers,et al.  Phosphorus in Runoff and Streams , 1974 .

[25]  A. Sharpley,et al.  Loss of nitrogen and phosphorus in tile drainage as influenced by urea application and grazing animals , 1979 .

[26]  S. Jarvis,et al.  The relation between fertilizer nitrogen applications and nitrate leaching from grazed grassland , 1992 .

[27]  T. Navin,et al.  Cryptosporidium: Its biology and potential for environmental transmission , 1986 .

[28]  Peter Chapman,et al.  Phosphorus budgets for two contrasting grassland farming systems in the UK , 1998 .

[29]  P. Westerman,et al.  Long-term swine lagoon effluent applications on coastal bermudagrass. II, Effect on nutrient accumulation in soil , 1990 .

[30]  R. Foy,et al.  Increase in soluble phosphorus transported in drainflow from a grassland catchment in response to soil phosphorus accumulation , 1995 .

[31]  A. Bodine,et al.  A survey of effects of animal wastes on streat pollution from selected dairy farms. , 1974, Journal of dairy science.

[32]  W. Ritter,et al.  Influence of agricultural practices on nitrates in the water table aquifer , 1987 .

[33]  A. Havelaar,et al.  Epidemiological studies of risks associated with the agricultural use of sewage sludge :knowledge and needs , 1986 .

[34]  Andrew N. Sharpley,et al.  The Impact of Soil and Fertilizer Phosphorus on the Environment , 1987 .

[35]  P. Hooda,et al.  Macroinvertebrates As Bioindicators of Water Pollution in Streams Draining Dairy Farming Catchments , 2000 .

[36]  G. Ruxton.  Mathematical modelling of ammonia volatilization from slurry stores and its effect on Cryptosporidium oocyst viability , 1995, The Journal of Agricultural Science.

[37]  S. Adhikari,et al.  Long-term Effect of Raw Sewage Application on the Chemical Composition of Ground Water , 1997 .

[38]  Philip M. Haygarth,et al.  Transfer of phosphorus from agricultural soils , 1999 .

[39]  P. Hooda,et al.  A comparative study of nitrate leaching from intensively managed monoculture grass and grass–clover pastures , 1998, The Journal of Agricultural Science.

[40]  S. Jarvis.  Nitrogen cycling and losses from dairy farms , 1993 .

[41]  A. Buret,et al.  Zoonotic potential of giardiasis in domestic ruminants. , 1990, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[42]  K. E. Saxton,et al.  The Effect of Cattle Grazing on Indicator Bacteria in Runoff From a Pacific Northwest Watershed , 1982 .

[43]  M. Brooker,et al.  A comparison of nutrient sources and behaviour in two lowland subcatchments of the River Wye , 1981 .

[44]  M. Neill.  Nitrate concentrations in river waters in the south-east of Ireland and their relationship with agricultural practice , 1989 .

[45]  P. Hooda,et al.  Streamwater nitrate concentrations in six agricultural catchments in Scotland. , 1997, The Science of the total environment.

[46]  T. Entz,et al.  Nitrate Leaching Losses Under Repeated Cattle Feedlot Manure Applications in Southern Alberta , 1996 .

[47]  J. Steenvoorden,et al.  Nitrogen losses from animal manures: from grazed pastures and from applied slurry , 1987 .

[48]  J. Hanway,et al.  Plant Nutrient Losses from Tile‐Outlet Terraces , 1974 .

[49]  E. A. Garwood,et al.  Nitrate leaching from grassland , 1984, Nature.

[50]  R. R. Simard,et al.  Forms and Concentration of Phosphorus in Drainage Water of Twenty-Seven Tile-Drained Soils , 1998 .

[51]  F. R. Hore,et al.  Pollution Potential and Corn Yields from Selected Rates and Timing of Liquid Manure Applications , 1981 .

[52]  C. Stamm,et al.  Preferential transport of phosphorus in drained grassland soils , 1998 .

[53]  Mark S. Coyne,et al.  Fecal bacteria in agricultural waters of the bluegrass region of Kentucky , 1995 .

[54]  P. L'Hermite,et al.  Treatment and use of sewage sludge and liquid agricultural wastes. Proceedings of a symposium, Athens, Greece, 1-4 October 1990. , 1990 .

[55]  A. P. Barnett,et al.  Soil Loss and Microbiological Quality of Runoff from Land Treated with Poultry Litter , 1980 .

[56]  W. A. Virtue,et al.  Sheep dip chemicals and water pollution. , 1997, The Science of the total environment.

[57]  E. Russek-Cohen,et al.  Correlation of water activity and other environmental conditions with repeated detection of Salmonella contamination on poultry farms. , 1992, Avian diseases.

[58]  Lloyd B. Owens,et al.  Groundwater nitrate levels under fertilized grass and grass-legume pastures , 1994 .

[59]  P. Hooda,et al.  Soil and land use effects on phosphorus in six streams draining small agricultural catchments in Scotland , 1997 .

[60]  D. Barraclough,et al.  Fate of fertilizer nitrogen applied to grassland. I. Field leaching results , 1983 .

[61]  Stanley L. Ponce,et al.  Cattle grazing impact on surface water quality in a Colorado front range stream , 1983 .

[62]  D. Macdonald,et al.  Cryptosporidiosis reservoir in wild brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) in the UK , 1995, Epidemiology and Infection.

[63]  I. Thomsen,et al.  Effects of cropping system and rates of nitrogen in animal slurry and mineral fertilizer on nitrate leaching from a sandy loam , 1993 .

[64]  J. C. Ryden,et al.  Nitrogen relationships in intensively managed temperate grasslands , 1984 .

[65]  S. Ryding,et al.  Swedish Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution: A Summary of Research and Findings , 1990 .

[66]  R. Herd,et al.  Concurrent infections of Giardia and Cryptosporidium on two Ohio farms with calf diarrhea , 1993, Veterinary Parasitology.

[67]  Robert L. Hill,et al.  Soil nitrate concentrations under corn as affected by tillage, manure, and fertilizer applications , 1993 .

[68]  C. Jordan,et al.  Factors affecting leaching of nutrients from an intensively managed grassland in county Antrim, Northern Ireland , 1985 .

[69]  S. Theocharopoulos,et al.  Nitrogen leaching from soils in the Kopais area of Greece , 1993 .

[70]  P. Hooda,et al.  Phosphorus Loss in Drainflow from Intensively Managed Grassland Soils , 1999 .

[71]  George R. Hallberg,et al.  Agricultural chemicals in ground water: Extent and implications , 1987 .

[72]  B. Joern,et al.  Phosphorus loss in agricultural drainage: historical perspective and current research , 1998 .

[73]  D. Schindler,et al.  Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Carbon Dynamics of Experimental Lake 303 during Recovery from Eutrophication , 1989 .

[74]  D. Scholefield,et al.  Molybdate-reactive phosphorus losses in surface and drainage waters from permanent grassland , 1996 .

[75]  S. J. Smith,et al.  Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fate from Long-Term Poultry Litter Applications to Oklahoma Soils , 1993 .

[76]  C. McCahon,et al.  LETHAL AND SUB-LETHAL TOXICITY OF FIELD SIMULATED FARM WASTE EPISODES TO SEVERAL FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATE SPECIES , 1991 .

[77]  E. Russek-Cohen,et al.  Prevalence of Salmonella in broiler flocks: effect of litter water activity, house construction, and watering devices. , 1995, Avian diseases.

[78]  J. S. Schepers,et al.  Chemical and bacteriological quality of pasture runoff , 1981 .

[79]  D. Meals,et al.  Water quality achievable with agricultural best management practices , 1989 .

[80]  J. Niemi,et al.  Bacterial pollution of waters in pristine and agricultural lands , 1991 .

[81]  Oene Oenema,et al.  Organic phosphorus in solutions and leachates from soils treated with animal slurries , 1997 .

[82]  W. B. Betts,et al.  Protozoan parasites and water , 1995 .

[83]  E. A. Garwood,et al.  Nitrate loss through leaching and surface runoff from grassland: effects of water supply, soil type and management , 1986 .

[84]  Joan B. Rose,et al.  Occurrence and Significance of Cryptosporidium in Water , 1988 .

[85]  J. M. Laflen,et al.  Water quality consequences of conservation tillage: New technology is needed to improve the water quality advantages of conservation tillage , 1983 .

[86]  M J Wang,et al.  Land application of sewage sludge in China. , 1997, The Science of the total environment.

[87]  J. Schepers,et al.  Chemical Water Quality of Runoff From Grazing Land in Nebraska: I. Influence of Grazing Livestock , 1982 .

[88]  S. J. Smith,et al.  Phosphorus Dynamics in Agricultural Runoff and Reservoirs in Oklahoma , 1989 .

[89]  R. Lowrance.  Nitrogen Outputs from a Field-Size Agricultural Watershed , 1992 .

[90]  R. J. Taylor,et al.  A study of some disease hazards which could be associated with the system of applying cattle slurry to pasture , 1969, Veterinary Record.

[91]  B. J. Carter,et al.  Impact of long-term swine and poultry manure application on soil and water resources in Eastern Oklahoma. , 1990 .

[92]  J. H. Williams,et al.  Efficient Land Use of Sludge and Manure , 1986 .

[93]  D. Bouldin,et al.  Effects of Dairy Manure on Phosphorus Concentrations and Losses in Tile Effluent , 1981 .

[94]  I. S. Kristensen,et al.  A Simple Model for Estimation of Atmospherically-Derived Nitrogen in Grass-Clover Systems , 1995 .

[95]  R. Axford,et al.  Pollution in livestock production systems. , 1994 .

[96]  R. R. Simard,et al.  Phosphorus Status of Forest and Agricultural Soils from a Watershed of High Animal Density , 1995 .

[97]  L. Bergström,et al.  Leaching of Nitrate from Monolith Lysimeters of Different Types of Agricultural Soils , 1991 .

[98]  Jens Aage Hansen,et al.  Nitrogen in organic wastes applied to soils , 1989 .

[99]  R. J. Taylor,et al.  The survival of Escherichia coli and Salmonella dublin in slurry on pasture and the infectivity of S. dublin for grazing calves. , 1971, The British veterinary journal.

[100]  D. Morck,et al.  Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Canadian farm animals. , 1997, Veterinary parasitology.

[101]  M. Melvin,et al.  Sheep-Dips as a Source of Pollution of Freshwaters – A Study in Grampian Region , 1991 .

[102]  P. Chapman,et al.  A probable waterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in the Sheffield area. , 1990, Journal of medical microbiology.

[103]  R. Chalmers,et al.  The prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris in Mus domesticus, Apodemus sylvaticus and Clethrionomys glareolus in an agricultural system , 1997, Parasitology Research.

[104]  R. H. Fox,et al.  Nitrate Leaching from Nitrogen-Fertilized and Manured Corn Measured with Zero-Tension Pan Lysimeters , 1994 .

[105]  Andrew N. Sharpley,et al.  Dependence of runoff phosphorus on extractable soil phosphorus , 1995 .

[106]  J. Böttcher,et al.  Nitrate pollution of groundwater in western Europe , 1989 .

[107]  J. Badenoch,et al.  Cryptosporidium in water supplies. Report of the group of experts. , 1990 .

[108]  J. Quílez,et al.  Prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in cattle in Aragón (northeastern Spain) , 1996, Veterinary Parasitology.

[109]  J. C. Ryden,et al.  Nitrogen Fluxes in Intensive Grassland Systems , 2011, Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences.

[110]  J. Seager,et al.  The impact of intensive dairy farming activities on river quality : the eastern Cleddau catchment study , 1990 .

[111]  D. Cluis,et al.  Water contamination by ammonium nitrogen following the spreading of hog manure and mineral fertilizers , 1995 .

[112]  P. Moore,et al.  Decreasing Phosphorus Solubility in Poultry Litter with Aluminum, Calcium, and Iron Amendments , 1994 .

[113]  D. Keeney,et al.  Des Moines River Nitrate in Relation to Watershed Agricultural Practices: 1945 Versus 1980s , 1993 .

[114]  J. Neeteson,et al.  23 – Effects of Slurry With and Without the Nitrification Inhibitor Dicyandiamide on Soil Mineral Nitrogen and Nitrogen Response of Potatoes , 1989 .

[115]  K. A. Smith,et al.  Utilizing the nitrogen content of organic manures on farms—problems and practical solutions , 1993 .

[116]  F. R. Hore,et al.  Dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphate concentrations in discharge from two agricultural catchments in Eastern Ontario , 1982 .

[117]  S. Erlandsen,et al.  Giardiasis--is it really a zoonosis? , 1988, Parasitology today.

[118]  David M. Miller,et al.  Reduction of Phosphorus in Runoff from Field‐Applied Poultry Litter Using Chemical Amendments , 1995 .

[119]  Keith Goulding,et al.  Phosphorus Leaching from Soils Containing Different Phosphorus Concentrations in the Broadbalk Experiment , 1995 .