New principles of cell plasticity.

Recent discoveries demonstrating surprising cell plasticity in animals and humans call into question many long held assumptions regarding differentiative potential of adult cells. These assumptions reflect a classical paradigm of cell lineage development projected onto both prenatal development and post-natal maintenance and repair of tissues. The classical paradigm describes unidirectional, hierarchical lineages proceedings step-wise from totipotent or pluripotent stem cells through intermediate, ever more restricted progenitor cells, leading finally to 'terminally differentiated' cells. However, in light of both the recent discoveries and older clinical or experimental findings, we have suggested principles comprising a new paradigm of cell plasticity, summarized here.

[1]  H. Blau,et al.  Plasticity of cell fate: insights from heterokaryons. , 1999, Seminars in cell & developmental biology.

[2]  S. Barsky,et al.  Monoclonal origins of malignant mixed tumors (carcinosarcomas). Evidence for a divergent histogenesis. , 1996, The American journal of surgical pathology.

[3]  I. Wilmut,et al.  Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line , 1996, Nature.

[4]  H. Blau,et al.  Effect of cell history on response to helix–loop–helix family of myogenic regulators , 1990, Nature.

[5]  S. Henikoff.  Heterochromatin function in complex genomes. , 2000, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[6]  R. Kingston,et al.  Cooperation between Complexes that Regulate Chromatin Structure and Transcription , 2002, Cell.

[7]  H. Blau,et al.  Differentiation requires continuous active control. , 1992, Annual review of biochemistry.

[8]  M. Greaves,et al.  Multilineage gene expression precedes commitment in the hemopoietic system. , 1997, Genes & development.

[9]  M. Carmo-Fonseca.  The Contribution of Nuclear Compartmentalization to Gene Regulation , 2002, Cell.

[10]  K. Campbell,et al.  Nuclear transfer in farm animal species. , 1999, Seminars in cell & developmental biology.

[11]  D. Moazed,et al.  Common themes in mechanisms of gene silencing. , 2001, Molecular cell.

[12]  M. Vogelauer,et al.  Site-specific in vivo cleavages by DNA topoisomerase I in the regulatory regions of the 35 S rRNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are transcription independent. , 1999, Journal of molecular biology.

[13]  E. Thompson.  Chromatin structure and gene expression in the preimplantation mammalian embryo. , 1996, Reproduction, nutrition, development.

[14]  Y. Bergman,et al.  DNA demethylation: turning genes on. , 1998, Biological chemistry.

[15]  M. Gartenberg,et al.  Yeast heterochromatin is a dynamic structure that requires silencers continuously. , 2000, Genes & development.

[16]  A. Mclaren,et al.  Germ and somatic cell lineages in the developing gonad , 2000, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology.

[17]  G. Felsenfeld,et al.  Chromatin structure and gene expression. , 1996, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[18]  J. C. Eissenberg.  Decisive factors: a transcription activator can overcome heterochromatin silencing. , 2001, BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology.

[19]  I. Weissman,et al.  Stem and progenitor cells: origins, phenotypes, lineage commitments, and transdifferentiations. , 2001, Annual review of cell and developmental biology.

[20]  B. Brunk,et al.  Regulated demethylation of the myoD distal enhancer during skeletal myogenesis. , 1996, Developmental biology.

[21]  Richard C Lewontin,et al.  It Ain't Necessarily So: The Dream of the Human Genome and Other Illusions , 2000 .

[22]  C Cremer,et al.  Morphology and dynamics of chromosome territories in living cells. , 2001, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[23]  H. Blau,et al.  5-azacytidine permits gene activation in a previously noninducible cell type , 1985, Cell.

[24]  T. Sasaki,et al.  New insights into the transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase CD45. , 2001, The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology.

[25]  J. Slack,et al.  Transdifferentiation and metaplasia--switching cell types. , 2001, Current opinion in genetics & development.

[26]  P. Quesenberry,et al.  Physical and physiological plasticity of hematopoietic stem cells. , 2001, Blood cells, molecules & diseases.

[27]  H. Blau,et al.  Plasticity of the differentiated state. , 1985, Science.

[28]  M. Loeffler,et al.  Stem cells: attributes, cycles, spirals, pitfalls and uncertainties. Lessons for and from the crypt. , 1990, Development.

[29]  H. Niida,et al.  The MAR-binding protein SATB1 orchestrates temporal and spatial expression of multiple genes during T-cell development. , 2000, Genes & development.

[30]  M. Trevisan,et al.  Resolution of pluripotential intermediates in murine hematopoietic differentiation by global complementary DNA amplification from single cells: confirmation of assignments by expression profiling of cytokine receptor transcripts. , 2001, Blood.

[31]  K. Campbell,et al.  CD5 signal transduction: positive or negative modulation of antigen receptor signaling. , 2000, Critical reviews in immunology.

[32]  Peter A. Jones,et al.  The Role of DNA Methylation in Mammalian Epigenetics , 2001, Science.

[33]  D. Krause,et al.  Toward a new paradigm of cell plasticity , 2002, Leukemia.

[34]  CD34: structure, biology, and clinical utility. , 1996, Blood.

[35]  H. Blau,et al.  Differentiation requires continuous regulation , 1991, The Journal of cell biology.

[36]  D. Krause,et al.  Suggestions for a new paradigm of cell differentiative potential. , 2001, Blood cells, molecules & diseases.

[37]  S. Elgin,et al.  Epigenetic Codes for Heterochromatin Formation and Silencing Rounding up the Usual Suspects , 2002, Cell.

[38]  John W. Sedat,et al.  Multiple regimes of constrained chromosome motion are regulated in the interphase Drosophila nucleus , 2001, Current Biology.

[39]  C. Potten,et al.  Stem cells in gastrointestinal epithelium: numbers, characteristics and death. , 1998, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[40]  D. Häussinger,et al.  Gaucher's disease: a review for the internist and hepatologist. , 2000, Hepato-gastroenterology.

[41]  T. Cremer,et al.  Chromosome territories, nuclear architecture and gene regulation in mammalian cells , 2001, Nature Reviews Genetics.

[42]  R. Jaenisch,et al.  Monoclonal mice generated by nuclear transfer from mature B and T donor cells , 2002, Nature.

[43]  T. Kouzarides.  Histone methylation in transcriptional control. , 2002, Current opinion in genetics & development.

[44]  C. Verfaillie,et al.  Characterization of Multipotent Adult Progenitor Cells, a Subpopulation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.